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Russian
00:00:22
Today, I'm going to take you00:00:24
around the world in 18 minutes.00:00:26
My base of operations is in the U.S.,00:00:29
but let's start at the other end of the map,00:00:31
in Kyoto, Japan,00:00:33
where I was living with a Japanese family00:00:36
while I was doing part of my dissertational research00:00:38
15 years ago.00:00:41
I knew even then that I would encounter00:00:43
cultural differences and misunderstandings,00:00:45
but they popped up when I least expected it.00:00:48
On my first day,00:00:50
I went to a restaurant,00:00:52
and I ordered a cup of green tea with sugar.00:00:54
After a pause, the waiter said,00:00:56
"One does not put sugar in green tea."00:01:00
"I know," I said. "I'm aware of this custom.00:01:02
But I really like my tea sweet."00:01:05
In response, he gave me an even more courteous version00:01:08
of the same explanation.00:01:10
"One does not put sugar00:01:12
in green tea."00:01:15
"I understand," I said,00:01:17
"that the Japanese do not put sugar in their green tea,00:01:19
but I'd like to put some sugar00:01:21
in my green tea."00:01:23
(Laughter)00:01:25
Surprised by my insistence,00:01:27
the waiter took up the issue with the manager.00:01:29
Pretty soon,00:01:31
a lengthy discussion ensued,00:01:33
and finally the manager came over to me and said,00:01:36
"I am very sorry. We do not have sugar."00:01:39
(Laughter)00:01:41
Well, since I couldn't have my tea the way I wanted it,00:01:44
I ordered a cup of coffee,00:01:46
which the waiter brought over promptly.00:01:48
Resting on the saucer00:01:50
were two packets of sugar.00:01:53
My failure to procure myself00:01:56
a cup of sweet, green tea00:01:58
was not due to a simple misunderstanding.00:02:01
This was due to a fundamental difference00:02:03
in our ideas about choice.00:02:06
From my American perspective,00:02:08
when a paying customer makes a reasonable request00:02:10
based on her preferences,00:02:12
she has every right to have that request met.00:02:15
The American way, to quote Burger King,00:02:17
is to "have it your way,"00:02:19
because, as Starbucks says,00:02:21
"happiness is in your choices."00:02:23
(Laughter)00:02:25
But from the Japanese perspective,00:02:28
it's their duty to protect those who don't know any better --00:02:31
(Laughter)00:02:33
in this case, the ignorant gaijin --00:02:35
from making the wrong choice.00:02:38
Let's face it: the way I wanted my tea00:02:40
was inappropriate according to cultural standards,00:02:43
and they were doing their best to help me save face.00:02:46
Americans tend to believe00:02:48
that they've reached some sort of pinnacle00:02:50
in the way they practice choice.00:02:52
They think that choice, as seen through the American lens00:02:55
best fulfills an innate and universal00:02:57
desire for choice in all humans.00:03:00
Unfortunately,00:03:02
these beliefs are based on assumptions00:03:04
that don't always hold true00:03:06
in many countries, in many cultures.00:03:09
At times they don't even hold true00:03:11
at America's own borders.00:03:13
I'd like to discuss some of these assumptions00:03:15
and the problems associated with them.00:03:18
As I do so, I hope you'll start thinking00:03:20
about some of your own assumptions00:03:22
and how they were shaped by your backgrounds.00:03:25
First assumption:00:03:27
if a choice affects you,00:03:29
then you should be the one to make it.00:03:31
This is the only way to ensure00:03:33
that your preferences and interests00:03:35
will be most fully accounted for.00:03:38
It is essential for success.00:03:41
In America, the primary locus of choice00:03:44
is the individual.00:03:46
People must choose for themselves, sometimes sticking to their guns,00:03:49
regardless of what other people want or recommend.00:03:52
It's called "being true to yourself."00:03:55
But do all individuals benefit00:03:57
from taking such an approach to choice?00:04:00
Mark Lepper and I did a series of studies00:04:02
in which we sought the answer to this very question.00:04:05
In one study,00:04:07
which we ran in Japantown, San Francisco,00:04:10
we brought seven- to nine-year-old Anglo- and Asian-American children00:04:13
into the laboratory,00:04:15
and we divided them up into three groups.00:04:17
The first group came in,00:04:19
and they were greeted by Miss Smith,00:04:21
who showed them six big piles of anagram puzzles.00:04:24
The kids got to choose which pile of anagrams they would like to do,00:04:27
and they even got to choose which marker00:04:29
they would write their answers with.00:04:31
When the second group of children came in,00:04:33
they were brought to the same room, shown the same anagrams,00:04:36
but this time Miss Smith told them00:04:38
which anagrams to do00:04:40
and which markers to write their answers with.00:04:43
Now when the third group came in,00:04:46
they were told that their anagrams and their markers00:04:49
had been chosen by their mothers.00:04:51
(Laughter)00:04:53
In reality,00:04:55
the kids who were told what to do,00:04:57
whether by Miss Smith or their mothers,00:04:59
were actually given the very same activity,00:05:01
which their counterparts in the first group00:05:03
had freely chosen.00:05:05
With this procedure, we were able to ensure00:05:07
that the kids across the three groups00:05:09
all did the same activity,00:05:11
making it easier for us to compare performance.00:05:14
Such small differences in the way we administered the activity00:05:17
yielded striking differences00:05:19
in how well they performed.00:05:21
Anglo-Americans,00:05:23
they did two and a half times more anagrams00:05:26
when they got to choose them,00:05:28
as compared to when it was00:05:30
chosen for them by Miss Smith or their mothers.00:05:33
It didn't matter who did the choosing,00:05:36
if the task was dictated by another,00:05:38
their performance suffered.00:05:40
In fact, some of the kids were visibly embarrassed00:05:43
when they were told that their mothers had been consulted.00:05:46
(Laughter)00:05:48
One girl named Mary said,00:05:50
"You asked my mother?"00:05:53
(Laughter)00:05:55
In contrast,00:05:57
Asian-American children00:05:59
performed best when they believed00:06:01
their mothers had made the choice,00:06:04
second best when they chose for themselves,00:06:07
and least well when it had been chosen by Miss Smith.00:06:10
A girl named Natsumi00:06:12
even approached Miss Smith as she was leaving the room00:06:14
and tugged on her skirt and asked,00:06:16
"Could you please tell my mommy00:06:18
I did it just like she said?"00:06:22
The first-generation children were strongly influenced00:06:25
by their immigrant parents'00:06:27
approach to choice.00:06:29
For them, choice was not just a way00:06:31
of defining and asserting00:06:33
their individuality,00:06:35
but a way to create community and harmony00:06:37
by deferring to the choices00:06:39
of people whom they trusted and respected.00:06:42
If they had a concept of being true to one's self,00:06:45
then that self, most likely,00:06:47
[was] composed, not of an individual,00:06:49
but of a collective.00:06:51
Success was just as much about pleasing key figures00:06:54
as it was about satisfying00:06:56
one's own preferences.00:06:58
Or, you could say that00:07:00
the individual's preferences were shaped00:07:02
by the preferences of specific others.00:07:06
The assumption then that we do best00:07:08
when the individual self chooses00:07:10
only holds00:07:12
when that self00:07:14
is clearly divided from others.00:07:17
When, in contrast,00:07:19
two or more individuals00:07:21
see their choices and their outcomes00:07:23
as intimately connected,00:07:25
then they may amplify one another's success00:07:28
by turning choosing00:07:30
into a collective act.00:07:32
To insist that they choose independently00:07:35
might actually compromise00:07:37
both their performance00:07:39
and their relationships.00:07:41
Yet that is exactly what00:07:43
the American paradigm demands.00:07:45
It leaves little room for interdependence00:07:48
or an acknowledgment of individual fallibility.00:07:51
It requires that everyone treat choice00:07:54
as a private and self-defining act.00:07:58
People that have grown up in such a paradigm00:08:00
might find it motivating,00:08:02
but it is a mistake to assume00:08:04
that everyone thrives under the pressure00:08:06
of choosing alone.00:08:09
The second assumption which informs the American view of choice00:08:12
goes something like this.00:08:14
The more choices you have,00:08:16
the more likely you are00:08:18
to make the best choice.00:08:20
So bring it on, Walmart, with 100,000 different products,00:08:23
and Amazon, with 27 million books00:08:26
and Match.com with -- what is it? --00:08:28
15 million date possibilities now.00:08:32
You will surely find the perfect match.00:08:35
Let's test this assumption00:08:37
by heading over to Eastern Europe.00:08:39
Here, I interviewed people00:08:41
who were residents of formerly communist countries,00:08:44
who had all faced the challenge00:08:46
of transitioning to a more00:08:48
democratic and capitalistic society.00:08:51
One of the most interesting revelations00:08:53
came not from an answer to a question,00:08:55
but from a simple gesture of hospitality.00:08:58
When the participants arrived for their interview,00:09:01
I offered them a set of drinks:00:09:03
Coke, Diet Coke, Sprite --00:09:05
seven, to be exact.00:09:07
During the very first session,00:09:09
which was run in Russia,00:09:11
one of the participants made a comment00:09:13
that really caught me off guard.00:09:16
"Oh, but it doesn't matter.00:09:18
It's all just soda. That's just one choice."00:09:21
(Murmuring)00:09:23
I was so struck by this comment that from then on,00:09:25
I started to offer all the participants00:09:27
those seven sodas,00:09:29
and I asked them, "How many choices are these?"00:09:32
Again and again,00:09:34
they perceived these seven different sodas,00:09:37
not as seven choices, but as one choice:00:09:40
soda or no soda.00:09:42
When I put out juice and water00:09:44
in addition to these seven sodas,00:09:46
now they perceived it as only three choices --00:09:48
juice, water and soda.00:09:51
Compare this to the die-hard devotion of many Americans,00:09:54
not just to a particular flavor of soda,00:09:57
but to a particular brand.00:09:59
You know, research shows repeatedly00:10:02
that we can't actually tell the difference00:10:04
between Coke and Pepsi.00:10:06
Of course, you and I know00:10:08
that Coke is the better choice.00:10:10
(Laughter)00:10:16
For modern Americans who are exposed00:10:18
to more options and more ads associated with options00:10:21
than anyone else in the world,00:10:23
choice is just as much about who they are00:10:25
as it is about what the product is.00:10:28
Combine this with the assumption that more choices are always better,00:10:31
and you have a group of people for whom every little difference matters00:10:34
and so every choice matters.00:10:36
But for Eastern Europeans,00:10:39
the sudden availability of all these00:10:41
consumer products on the marketplace was a deluge.00:10:44
They were flooded with choice00:10:46
before they could protest that they didn't know how to swim.00:10:50
When asked, "What words and images00:10:52
do you associate with choice?"00:10:54
Grzegorz from Warsaw said,00:10:57
"Ah, for me it is fear.00:10:59
There are some dilemmas you see.00:11:01
I am used to no choice."00:11:03
Bohdan from Kiev said,00:11:05
in response to how he felt about00:11:07
the new consumer marketplace,00:11:09
"It is too much.00:11:11
We do not need everything that is there."00:11:13
A sociologist from00:11:15
the Warsaw Survey Agency explained,00:11:18
"The older generation jumped from nothing00:11:21
to choice all around them.00:11:23
They were never given a chance to learn00:11:25
how to react."00:11:27
And Tomasz, a young Polish man said,00:11:30
"I don't need twenty kinds of chewing gum.00:11:33
I don't mean to say that I want no choice,00:11:36
but many of these choices are quite artificial."00:11:40
In reality, many choices are between things00:11:43
that are not that much different.00:11:47
The value of choice00:11:49
depends on our ability00:11:51
to perceive differences00:11:53
between the options.00:11:55
Americans train their whole lives00:11:57
to play "spot the difference."00:12:00
They practice this from such an early age00:12:02
that they've come to believe that everyone00:12:04
must be born with this ability.00:12:06
In fact, though all humans share00:12:08
a basic need and desire for choice,00:12:11
we don't all see choice in the same places00:12:14
or to the same extent.00:12:16
When someone can't see how one choice00:12:18
is unlike another,00:12:20
or when there are too many choices to compare and contrast,00:12:23
the process of choosing can be00:12:25
confusing and frustrating.00:12:28
Instead of making better choices,00:12:30
we become overwhelmed by choice,00:12:32
sometimes even afraid of it.00:12:35
Choice no longer offers opportunities,00:12:37
but imposes constraints.00:12:39
It's not a marker of liberation,00:12:41
but of suffocation00:12:43
by meaningless minutiae.00:12:45
In other words,00:12:47
choice can develop into the very opposite00:12:49
of everything it represents00:12:51
in America00:12:53
when it is thrust upon those00:12:55
who are insufficiently prepared for it.00:12:58
But it is not only other people00:13:00
in other places00:13:02
that are feeling the pressure00:13:04
of ever-increasing choice.00:13:06
Americans themselves are discovering00:13:08
that unlimited choice00:13:10
seems more attractive in theory00:13:12
than in practice.00:13:14
We all have physical, mental00:13:17
and emotional (Laughter) limitations00:13:19
that make it impossible for us00:13:21
to process every single choice we encounter,00:13:24
even in the grocery store,00:13:26
let alone over the course of our entire lives.00:13:29
A number of my studies have shown00:13:32
that when you give people 10 or more options00:13:34
when they're making a choice, they make poorer decisions,00:13:37
whether it be health care, investment,00:13:39
other critical areas.00:13:41
Yet still, many of us believe00:13:43
that we should make all our own choices00:13:46
and seek out even more of them.00:13:49
This brings me to the third,00:13:52
and perhaps most problematic, assumption:00:13:55
"You must never00:13:57
say no to choice."00:14:00
To examine this, let's go back to the U.S.00:14:02
and then hop across the pond to France.00:14:05
Right outside Chicago,00:14:08
a young couple, Susan and Daniel Mitchell,00:14:10
were about to have their first baby.00:14:13
They'd already picked out a name for her,00:14:15
Barbara, after her grandmother.00:14:18
One night, when Susan was seven months pregnant,00:14:21
she started to experience contractions00:14:23
and was rushed to the emergency room.00:14:26
The baby was delivered through a C-section,00:14:29
but Barbara suffered cerebral anoxia,00:14:31
a loss of oxygen to the brain.00:14:34
Unable to breathe on her own,00:14:36
she was put on a ventilator.00:14:38
Two days later,00:14:40
the doctors gave the Mitchells00:14:42
a choice:00:14:44
They could either remove Barbara00:14:46
off the life support,00:14:48
in which case she would die within a matter of hours,00:14:51
or they could keep her on life support,00:14:54
in which case she might still die00:14:56
within a matter of days.00:14:58
If she survived, she would remain00:15:00
in a permanent vegetative state,00:15:03
never able to walk, talk00:15:06
or interact with others.00:15:09
What do they do?00:15:11
What do any parent do?00:15:17
In a study I conducted00:15:19
with Simona Botti and Kristina Orfali,00:15:21
American and French parents00:15:23
were interviewed.00:15:25
They had all suffered00:15:27
the same tragedy.00:15:29
In all cases, the life support was removed,00:15:32
and the infants had died.00:15:34
But there was a big difference.00:15:36
In France, the doctors decided whether and when00:15:39
the life support would be removed,00:15:42
while in the United States,00:15:44
the final decision rested with the parents.00:15:48
We wondered:00:15:50
does this have an effect on how the parents00:15:52
cope with the loss of their loved one?00:15:55
We found that it did.00:15:58
Even up to a year later,00:16:00
American parents00:16:02
were more likely to express negative emotions,00:16:04
as compared to their French counterparts.00:16:07
French parents were more likely to say things like,00:16:10
"Noah was here for so little time,00:16:13
but he taught us so much.00:16:15
He gave us a new perspective on life."00:16:19
American parents were more likely to say things like,00:16:22
"What if? What if?"00:16:25
Another parent complained,00:16:27
"I feel as if they purposefully tortured me.00:16:30
How did they get me to do that?"00:16:33
And another parent said,00:16:35
"I feel as if I've played a role00:16:37
in an execution."00:16:40
But when the American parents were asked00:16:42
if they would rather have had00:16:44
the doctors make the decision,00:16:47
they all said, "No."00:16:49
They could not imagine00:16:51
turning that choice over to another,00:16:53
even though having made that choice00:16:56
made them feel trapped,00:16:58
guilty, angry.00:17:00
In a number of cases00:17:02
they were even clinically depressed.00:17:05
These parents could not contemplate00:17:07
giving up the choice,00:17:09
because to do so would have gone contrary00:17:11
to everything they had been taught00:17:14
and everything they had come to believe00:17:16
about the power00:17:18
and purpose of choice.00:17:21
In her essay, "The White Album,"00:17:24
Joan Didion writes,00:17:27
"We tell ourselves stories00:17:29
in order to live.00:17:31
We interpret what we see,00:17:33
select the most workable00:17:35
of the multiple choices.00:17:37
We live entirely by the imposition00:17:39
of a narrative line00:17:41
upon disparate images,00:17:43
by the idea with which we have learned to freeze00:17:46
the shifting phantasmagoria,00:17:48
which is our actual experience."00:17:53
The story Americans tell,00:17:55
the story upon which00:17:57
the American dream depends,00:17:59
is the story of limitless choice.00:18:02
This narrative00:18:04
promises so much:00:18:06
freedom, happiness,00:18:08
success.00:18:10
It lays the world at your feet and says,00:18:13
"You can have anything, everything."00:18:17
It's a great story,00:18:19
and it's understandable why they would be reluctant00:18:21
to revise it.00:18:24
But when you take a close look,00:18:26
you start to see the holes,00:18:28
and you start to see that the story00:18:30
can be told in many other ways.00:18:33
Americans have so often tried to00:18:35
disseminate their ideas of choice,00:18:38
believing that they will be, or ought to be,00:18:41
welcomed with open hearts and minds.00:18:44
But the history books and the daily news tell us00:18:47
it doesn't always work out that way.00:18:50
The phantasmagoria,00:18:52
the actual experience that we try to understand00:18:54
and organize through narrative,00:18:57
varies from place to place.00:19:00
No single narrative serves the needs00:19:02
of everyone everywhere.00:19:06
Moreover, Americans themselves00:19:09
could benefit from incorporating00:19:12
new perspectives into their own narrative,00:19:15
which has been driving their choices00:19:17
for so long.00:19:20
Robert Frost once said that,00:19:23
"It is poetry that is lost in translation."00:19:27
This suggests that00:19:29
whatever is beautiful and moving,00:19:31
whatever gives us a new way to see,00:19:34
cannot be communicated to those00:19:36
who speak a different language.00:19:39
But Joseph Brodsky said that,00:19:41
"It is poetry00:19:43
that is gained in translation,"00:19:45
suggesting that translation00:19:47
can be a creative,00:19:49
transformative act.00:19:52
When it comes to choice,00:19:54
we have far more to gain than to lose00:19:57
by engaging in the many00:20:00
translations of the narratives.00:20:03
Instead of replacing00:20:05
one story with another,00:20:07
we can learn from and revel in00:20:09
the many versions that exist00:20:12
and the many that have yet to be written.00:20:15
No matter where we're from00:20:18
and what your narrative is,00:20:20
we all have a responsibility00:20:22
to open ourselves up to a wider array00:20:24
of what choice can do,00:20:27
and what it can represent.00:20:30
And this does not lead to00:20:32
a paralyzing moral relativism.00:20:35
Rather, it teaches us when00:20:37
and how to act.00:20:39
It brings us that much closer00:20:41
to realizing the full potential of choice,00:20:44
to inspiring the hope00:20:46
and achieving the freedom00:20:48
that choice promises00:20:50
but doesn't always deliver.00:20:52
If we learn to speak to one another,00:20:55
albeit through translation,00:20:58
then we can begin to see choice00:21:00
in all its strangeness,00:21:02
complexity00:21:05
and compelling beauty.00:21:07
Thank you.00:21:09
(Applause)00:21:20
Bruno Giussani: Thank you.00:21:23
Sheena, there is a detail about your biography00:21:26
that we have not written in the program book.00:21:28
But by now it's evident to everyone in this room. You're blind.00:21:31
And I guess one of the questions on everybody's mind is:00:21:34
How does that influence your study of choosing00:21:37
because that's an activity00:21:39
that for most people is associated with visual inputs00:21:42
like aesthetics and color and so on?00:21:46
Sheena Iyengar: Well, it's funny that you should ask that00:21:48
because one of the things that's interesting about being blind00:21:51
is you actually get a different vantage point00:21:53
when you observe the way00:21:55
sighted people make choices.00:21:57
And as you just mentioned, there's lots of choices out there00:21:59
that are very visual these days.00:22:01
Yeah, I -- as you would expect --00:22:03
get pretty frustrated by choices00:22:05
like what nail polish to put on00:22:07
because I have to rely on what other people suggest.00:22:09
And I can't decide.00:22:11
And so one time I was in a beauty salon,00:22:13
and I was trying to decide between two very light shades of pink.00:22:16
And one was called "Ballet Slippers."00:22:18
And the other one was called "Adorable."00:22:21
(Laughter)00:22:23
And so I asked these two ladies,00:22:25
and the one lady told me, "Well, you should definitely wear 'Ballet Slippers.'"00:22:27
"Well, what does it look like?"00:22:29
"Well, it's a very elegant shade of pink."00:22:31
"Okay, great."00:22:33
The other lady tells me to wear "Adorable."00:22:35
"What does it look like?"00:22:37
"It's a glamorous shade of pink."00:22:41
And so I asked them, "Well, how do I tell them apart?00:22:43
What's different about them?"00:22:45
And they said, "Well, one is elegant, the other one's glamorous."00:22:47
Okay, we got that.00:22:49
And the only thing they had consensus on:00:22:51
well, if I could see them, I would00:22:53
clearly be able to tell them apart.00:22:55
(Laughter)00:22:57
And what I wondered was whether they were being affected00:23:00
by the name or the content of the color,00:23:02
so I decided to do a little experiment.00:23:05
So I brought these two bottles of nail polish into the laboratory,00:23:08
and I stripped the labels off.00:23:10
And I brought women into the laboratory,00:23:12
and I asked them, "Which one would you pick?"00:23:14
50 percent of the women accused me of playing a trick,00:23:17
of putting the same color nail polish00:23:19
in both those bottles.00:23:21
(Laughter)00:23:23
(Applause)00:23:27
At which point you start to wonder who the trick's really played on.00:23:30
Now, of the women that could tell them apart,00:23:33
when the labels were off, they picked "Adorable,"00:23:36
and when the labels were on,00:23:38
they picked "Ballet Slippers."00:23:41
So as far as I can tell,00:23:43
a rose by any other name00:23:45
probably does look different00:23:47
and maybe even smells different.00:23:50
BG: Thank you. Sheena Iyengar. Thank you Sheena.00:23:53
(Applause)Description:
Sheena Iyengar seçimlerimizi nasıl yaptığımızı araştırıyor ve de yaptığımız seçimler sonucunda nasıl hissettiğimizi.TEDGlobal'de hem önemsiz seçimlerden (Coca Cola v. Pepsi) hem de çok önemli seçimlerden konuşuyor ve de verdiğimiz kararlar ile ilgili şaşırtıcı tavırları açığa çıkaran çığır açıcı araştırmasını paylaşıyor.
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