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Video tags
Subtitles
Russian
00:00:00
[Music]00:00:08
[Music]00:00:14
seems to the ages stone bronze iron and00:00:18
more and craft them into new forms00:00:23
expanding our horizons exploring hidden00:00:27
works and engineering life-changing00:00:30
technologies always pushing the limits00:00:34
to be colder faster safer wilder and now00:00:41
a new era is abuzz where cold is the new00:00:45
hot join me on a journey down the00:00:50
thermometer away from the warm world we00:00:53
inhabit to the realm of cold00:00:57
[Music]00:01:00
cold is a force we can harness to save00:01:03
us the stuff we're made of the ability00:01:06
to preserve organs for transplantation00:01:07
and even bring us back back through the00:01:11
dead came back to life oh yeah we are00:01:14
going to a topsy-turvy world where heat00:01:17
is the enemy heat is like noise random00:01:21
energy and vibration that disturbs and00:01:23
destroys but if you get things really00:01:26
really cold you can listen to what00:01:29
nature isn't whispering to you so cold00:01:33
but ordinary physics breaks down and the00:01:36
rules change things levitate we will00:01:40
travel to a place so cold that new00:01:42
states of matter are born where cold is00:01:46
creating a new breed of computers a00:01:48
quantum leap beyond the most powerful00:01:51
today by the time you get to about 50000:01:54
bits you have more possibilities than00:01:56
there are atoms in the visible universe00:01:59
I'm David Pogue join me tonight as we00:02:03
journey down the thermometer this is the00:02:05
coldest spot in the universe right now00:02:07
amazing I'm gonna get its autograph to00:02:11
make stuff00:02:12
[Music]00:02:30
I'm beginning my voyage down the00:02:33
thermometer from a very warm place in00:02:35
the universe earth now you may think it00:02:39
gets pretty cold here the lowest00:02:41
temperature ever recorded was minus 12800:02:44
degrees fahrenheit in Vostok Antarctica00:02:47
in 1983 but that's a heatwave compared00:02:51
to Saturn Pluto and most of outer space00:02:55
will get a lot colder than that as we00:02:59
journey down into the weird world of00:03:01
cold towards absolute zero but I'm00:03:05
getting ahead of myself00:03:07
our first stop is one we can all relate00:03:09
to 98.6 degrees the temperature of my00:03:13
body before I came here we're gonna go00:03:16
into the chambers turns out to learn00:03:21
about the cold first I have to get hot00:03:24
eighty-two point nine degrees that00:03:27
really doesn't sound so bad we're gonna00:03:29
put you a little hotter than that00:03:30
John castellani is a scientist at the00:03:32
Army's Daurio test chamber this is our00:03:35
environmental chamber this gigantic room00:03:37
is designed to recreate every00:03:39
conceivable environment that a soldier00:03:41
might face from the frigid mountains of00:03:43
Afghanistan to the 120 degree deserts of00:03:46
Iraq and humidity control in order for00:03:51
this place to work there's one more00:03:53
thing they need volunteers the only00:03:58
victim that we're gonna see in here00:03:59
today as yourself Castellani enlisted me00:04:02
to help test ways of keeping soldiers00:04:05
cool in the heat to do this they'll need00:04:08
to track my vital signs for a core00:04:10
temperature you'll be using this rectal00:04:11
probe rectal probe look it may feel a00:04:15
bit uncomfortable but no kidding all the00:04:17
way past to make sure it doesn't fall00:04:19
out how about you just go in there and00:04:20
tell you how hot I am pretty hot this is00:04:23
mostly for your safety00:04:25
oh thanks for thinking of me00:04:33
[Music]00:04:37
next they outfit me in 40 pounds of body00:04:40
armor and then it's into the chamber00:04:43
it's 104 degrees in here00:04:46
yes then I get a little lemon within00:04:50
minutes my temperature is going up good what is00:04:53
that an hour actually about four minutes00:04:55
their heart rates will start to rise the00:04:57
core temperatures start to rise it's00:05:01
around 101.5 degrees Fahrenheit00:05:04
potential what'll happen is to become a00:05:06
heat exhaustion casualty after two hours00:05:09
I called it quits please tell me there00:05:13
was some valid scientific purpose for00:05:14
that there is I mean really what we're00:05:17
trying to understand is when we develop00:05:19
this kind of gear is can we develop it00:05:21
in such a way that we can allow the body00:05:23
to be able to get rid of the heat oh man00:05:26
and why did I get so hot because of some00:05:28
basic laws of physics which I seem to00:05:31
have missed in my high school science00:05:33
class for example what is heat what is00:05:38
temperature and what is cold what did00:05:40
they teach you00:05:43
heat is energy disorganized energy the00:05:46
vibrations of molecules of the motion of00:05:48
atoms the faster they move around the00:05:51
more energy they have fats heat00:05:54
temperature is a measure of how much00:05:56
heat energy they have temperature is00:05:58
measuring the motion of atoms00:06:00
okay so heat really is something it's00:06:03
energy in motion and you can measure how00:06:06
much of it you have more and more heat00:06:08
your temperature goes up but cold is00:06:10
another story there's no cold flow it's00:06:13
heat flow really you're taking it out00:06:15
your temperature goes down you mean you00:06:17
don't put cold in no no there's really00:06:20
no such thing as cold so cold is just00:06:24
the absence of heat so things don't ever00:06:26
really get colder no they just get less00:06:29
hotter yeah that has a great ring to it00:06:32
making stuff or less otter that just00:06:35
seems backwards so I have a spoon here00:06:38
for you castellani showed me that how we00:06:41
think cold works rushing right into my00:06:44
flesh can really be the opposite of00:06:46
what's happening actually the heat from00:06:48
your hand is moving into the spoon not00:06:51
the other way around00:06:52
heat moves from areas of hotter00:06:54
temperatures or high energy to areas of00:06:57
lower temperature or low energy you can00:06:59
see it through the eyes of this thermal00:07:01
camera where warm things like my hand00:07:03
show up as light orange and colder00:07:06
things like the spoon are dark and sure00:07:10
enough now if you put your spoon up00:07:11
against your hand we can see keeps going00:07:14
from your hand into the spoon that's00:07:17
crazy00:07:19
the reason I was getting so hot on my00:07:21
forced march was the air was hotter at a00:07:24
higher energy state than my skin so00:07:28
instead of the heat from my core flowing00:07:30
out to the room the heat from the room00:07:33
flowed into my core the Army has a cool00:07:38
solution so David this is how we're00:07:40
gonna cool you off so what this is is a00:07:42
cooling garment is essentially going to00:07:44
circulate water through here I'm gonna00:07:48
hook this up to a small refrigerator00:07:50
I just had chills and keep it at about a00:07:54
nice cool 70 degrees00:08:05
just like last time my core temperature00:08:08
rises in the 104 degree environment but00:08:11
this time the heats got somewhere to go00:08:13
into the vest and out through the00:08:15
refrigeration unit significant00:08:18
difference eating two degrees Fahrenheit00:08:20
compared the last time when it was up00:08:22
around 95 or 96 degrees a vast is best00:08:24
if it is cold it's feeling better and he00:08:28
seems in better spirits and those are00:08:31
all the benefits that we've seen with00:08:32
this particular technology an hour and a00:08:34
half later as they remove my Kevlar vest00:08:37
that dark blue area that's my chest 7800:08:41
degrees cool baby00:08:45
but this is just the beginning of what00:08:47
Castellani has in store for me00:08:51
41 degrees that's the temperature in the00:08:54
chamber as ice-water rains down on me00:09:10
[Applause]00:09:11
Salani and his colleagues developed this00:09:14
procedure not to torture folks but to00:09:16
solve a mystery in 1995 a squad of Army00:09:21
Rangers waded through a swamp in Florida00:09:24
within hours00:09:26
four died of hypothermia if the00:09:29
temperature was 59 degrees00:09:33
to understand why they died in such a00:09:36
temperate conditions the army developed00:09:38
this experiment so after my cold shower00:09:43
a 30-minute march in 15 mile an hour00:09:46
wind mimic again you're outside he00:09:48
repeats this I'm gonna have the rain on00:09:50
you again over and over their00:09:58
investigation discovered that it was00:09:59
this combination of wet cold and wind00:10:02
that build the Rangers so if you were00:10:05
saying 50 degree water and immersed to00:10:08
the chest I can see that their research00:10:16
established safety guidelines for troops00:10:19
in the cold we may be able to tell00:10:21
people you may be able to last maybe an00:10:23
hour or an hour and a half in those00:10:25
kinds of conditions what are the early00:10:29
onset signs of hypothermia sexual00:10:34
changes for example a person's ability00:10:37
to walk or their gait but we start to00:10:39
grumble they start to mumble yeah the00:10:46
test is designed to go on for six hours00:10:48
but after just an hour of this it was00:10:51
time for my career as an army test00:10:53
subject to come to an end so far I've00:11:01
learned how deadly hypothermia can be00:11:04
but as I continued down the thermometer00:11:06
to our next stop ninety one point four00:11:09
degrees I'm about to discover that00:11:11
sometimes the opposite can be true this00:11:13
is actually a device to induce00:11:16
hypothermia in patients excuse me have00:11:20
you never heard of first do no harm00:11:22
Hermia kills you dr. cliff Calloway is a00:11:25
professor at the University of00:11:26
Pittsburgh but there are situations in00:11:28
which hypothermia can be beneficial for00:11:30
example patients after cardiac arrest00:11:33
patients like Susan Koeppen a mother of00:11:36
three a few years ago she set out for a00:11:39
run with friends00:11:40
it was a beautiful Sunday morning in00:11:43
November she had no idea what was in00:11:45
store we're about two miles into the run00:11:48
when a heart valve suddenly failed I put00:11:52
my hands on my knees and then collapsed00:11:55
on the sidewalk her heart stopped I was00:11:58
gone00:11:59
cardiac arrest paramedics arrived they00:12:02
were able to stabilize her and transport00:12:04
her to the hospital00:12:06
fortunately Callaway and his colleagues00:12:08
were there their goal to stop the brain00:12:11
damage that immediately follows cardiac00:12:13
arrest she was in a coma00:12:15
we used cooling blankets for hypothermia00:12:18
therapy to prevent permanent brain00:12:20
damage in the aftermath of cardiac00:12:22
arrest they dropped her body temperature00:12:24
to 91 degrees two days later they warmed00:12:28
her back up and soon after came around00:12:31
and talked to her husband for the first00:12:33
time I said you never made it home from00:12:41
your run on Sunday a year later she had00:12:46
fully recovered the hypothermia00:12:48
treatment saved my life saved my brain00:12:51
and I'm a mom and a wife like I was00:12:56
before the procedure that saved her life00:12:59
is called therapeutic hypothermia and00:13:02
I'm about to discover how it works she's00:13:09
the lady on the Star Trek Enterprise00:13:11
this device has water coming in through00:13:14
this tubing and pulls heat out of your00:13:16
body very cold just like the Army's00:13:19
cooling vest but here in order to fight00:13:22
brain damage Callaway brings down body00:13:24
temperatures to 91 degrees it lowers the00:13:27
metabolism it reduces brain swelling it00:13:30
reduces the likelihood of having00:13:32
seizures this has proved remarkably00:13:34
effective the odds of waking up are00:13:39
almost two to three times greater for00:13:42
the patient with hypothermia treatment00:13:44
compared to the patient without but00:13:47
amazingly in North America only 4000:13:50
percent of cardiac arrest00:13:52
to get this treatment wait it triples00:13:54
your chance of survival but only 40% of00:13:57
patients get the treatment00:13:58
yeah it's disappointing we really wish00:14:00
it was done more reliably for more00:14:02
patients yeah me too but there's a limit00:14:06
his treatment can save only the00:14:08
fortunate few cases where paramedics00:14:10
bring back a heartbeat within minutes00:14:13
many trauma patients die on the way to00:14:15
the hospital but biochemist Mark Roth00:14:19
says he has a way to save many of them00:14:21
by getting colder a lot colder well a00:14:26
simple way to think about David is they00:14:28
were trying to take the emergency out of00:14:30
emergency medicine for years he's been00:14:34
trying to develop a method that could00:14:35
one day by trauma patients time by00:14:38
dropping their core temperatures down as00:14:40
far as 60 degrees the problem is that00:14:44
when people get that cold it usually00:14:46
kills them usually there are these00:14:49
outliers00:14:50
he believes the answer to saving00:14:52
thousands of lives lies within these00:14:55
mysterious cases cases of people who00:14:58
suffered hypothermia so severe it00:15:00
stopped their hearts and yet they came00:15:03
back to life00:15:04
consider the case of Janice butcher to00:15:08
the brink of death and back her heart00:15:10
stopped she was unconscious in the00:15:12
freezing snow for four hours00:15:15
[Music]00:15:25
she was brought to the hospital 24 hours00:15:28
later walked out of hospital refusing00:15:30
any treatment and it has been fine since00:15:32
her core temperature dropped to 7000:15:35
degrees another example00:15:37
Erica ARP in Canada a one-year-old her00:15:40
core temperature drops to 61 degrees00:15:42
after she wandered into freezing cold00:15:44
weather wearing nothing but a diaper00:15:46
they didn't find her till morning after00:15:49
two hours without a heartbeat she too00:15:52
was revived and also made a full00:15:55
recovery but no one's gotten colder than00:15:58
on a beggin pole as a record for the00:16:00
lowest core temperature of 56.7 degrees00:16:03
Fahrenheit she was skiing down a00:16:06
waterfall valley near Narvik in North00:16:07
Norway when she fell headfirst into a00:16:09
river clinically dead for three hours00:16:12
three hours it took doctors nine hours00:16:15
to revive her he came back to life oh00:16:17
yeah oh yeah00:16:18
found a Bourget home is back at work and00:16:20
well enough to be with us in each of00:16:22
these cases their hearts stopped beating00:16:25
for hours if their brains weren't00:16:27
damaged by lack of oxygen how do the00:16:30
exceptions come to be there must be some00:16:33
way to exist out there and not require00:16:36
oxygen there has to be here these people00:16:38
would be dead he's searching for a way00:16:40
to do the same for trauma patients curb00:16:43
their demand for oxygen and not damage00:16:45
the brain by cooling them way down but00:16:49
there is a big problem if you're trying00:16:51
to use the cold to create medical00:16:55
benefit there's a sort of fundamental00:16:56
problem mammals fight that and they make00:17:00
heat using up resources in your body in00:17:03
order to do that as I discovered when I00:17:05
was shivering in the Army's test chamber00:17:07
when people get cold00:17:09
their metabolism actually increases and00:17:11
they burn more oxygen to make heat00:17:14
that's what killed the Rangers in the00:17:16
swamp as they fought to stay warm their00:17:19
bodies burned through all the available00:17:21
calories starving their brains of oxygen00:17:25
because that's the fuel that once you00:17:27
burn through it you are dead00:17:29
Roth knew that the reason that Ana Bagan00:17:32
home and the others survived and the00:17:33
Rangers didn't is that they were able to00:17:35
somehow shut off their bodies demand for00:17:38
oxygen but how could he do the same so00:17:42
how do I do that that was a real puzzle00:17:44
the answer came to him one night while00:17:47
he was watching TV while sitting on my00:17:50
couch at home watching it an OVA show00:17:53
about a cave in Mexico they said hey00:17:58
there had a little bit of hydrogen00:18:00
sulfide in it00:18:01
so we wear these gas masks to help00:18:03
filter out the hydrogen sulfide and she00:18:06
said that if you go in there without00:18:07
this respirator then you will collapse00:18:10
to the ground immediately thought that's00:18:12
it00:18:13
he thought that hydrogen sulfide might00:18:16
just be the key he knew that it00:18:19
naturally occurs in small quantities in00:18:21
the brain where it helps the cells00:18:23
regulate oxygen consumption but he also00:18:26
knew that too much of it overwhelms the00:18:28
cells turning off their ability to00:18:31
absorb oxygen starving them he wondered00:18:35
if he added just a little to the air to00:18:38
increase the amount in the brain by just00:18:40
a minut quantity that instead of00:18:42
starving the brain he could drastically00:18:44
reduce its need for oxygen he tried it00:18:48
on mice room air laced with hydrogen00:18:52
sulfide after three hours its core00:18:54
temperature drops almost 30 degrees the00:18:58
mouse is hovering now at about 7000:19:01
degrees Fahrenheit usually the mouse would fight the cold00:19:04
and burn through its supply of oxygen00:19:06
that mouse no longer responds to cooling00:19:10
by making heat it actually just gets00:19:14
Cobra because of the hydrogen sulfide00:19:17
it's brains demand for oxygen has00:19:19
dropped by 90% an animal in this state00:19:22
would survive otherwise lethal oxygen00:19:25
deprivation Roth thinks that he can do00:19:28
the same for people the goal is to00:19:30
clinically duplicate the miracle that00:19:32
saved these people's lives by delivering00:19:35
hydrogen sulfide intravenously00:19:37
and if he can do that he will00:19:39
revolutionize emergency medicine and00:19:41
save thousands of lives00:19:45
it seems to farther down the thermometer00:19:47
we go the more potential cold has for00:19:50
saving lives so why stop at 60 degrees00:19:54
why not get even colder to freeze it00:19:57
like in the movies yes suspended00:20:01
animation to make human time capsules or00:20:08
to travel to another solar system00:20:10
pipeline crew in long sleep but there's00:20:15
a reason this is called science fiction00:20:17
the human body is about 60% water and00:20:21
when water changes from a liquid into00:20:23
ice the molecules stop moving around00:20:26
freely and locked together to form00:20:28
crystals and that destroys cells so far00:20:33
no one has been able to get around that00:20:34
problem with people but there is a00:20:38
creature that has we find generally00:20:42
under the leaf litter cryo biologists00:20:44
john Costanzo studies an animal that has00:20:46
beaten the problem of freezing Hey the00:20:49
North American wood frog got him some of00:20:51
these animals can in fact survive the00:20:54
freezing and thawing of their body00:20:55
fluids back at his lab he pulled one out00:20:58
from a deep freeze let's go take a look00:21:00
oh there's no heartbeat there's no brain00:21:10
waves a dead frog no it's a brick of ice00:21:14
it's very much alive if there's no brain00:21:18
activity it's dead00:21:19
clinically perhaps but we've seen them00:21:22
thaw and come back to life how would00:21:24
that be possible00:21:25
ice destroys cells right this frog has00:21:28
worked out a number of different ways to00:21:31
avoid that kind of damage00:21:32
the frogs vital organs shrivel up00:21:35
releasing their water safely away from00:21:37
the frog's organs and something else00:21:40
happens most importantly as soon as the00:21:43
Frog begins freezing the liver begins00:21:46
producing compounds that allow the cells00:21:48
and tissues to survive a kind of00:21:51
antifreeze or00:21:52
as the Stan's Oh calls them00:21:54
cryoprotectants cryo protectants huge00:21:58
quantities which protect the Frog until00:22:01
the spring when something amazing00:22:04
happens the ice begins to melt and water00:22:10
returns to its usual location so the00:22:13
cells take the water back up and after a00:22:16
time the heart begins beating again we00:22:20
don't know how this happens it just00:22:21
spontaneously resumes beating it's crazy00:22:24
that's one of the first signs that the00:22:27
Frog is really not dead at all it's00:22:29
alive and then the the Frog begins to00:22:33
breathe00:22:35
eventually the Frog will be able to move00:22:37
its limbs sit upright and eventually00:22:41
pick him up away with these00:22:44
cryoprotectants the Frog has survived00:22:46
the cold of winter if we could figure00:22:50
out a way to do this for people we could00:22:52
save lives not by freezing our bodies00:22:55
but by preserving our organs for00:22:57
transplantation00:22:58
that's because organs even on ice have a00:23:01
limited shelf life parts for example00:23:04
last at most six hours thousands of00:23:07
people die each year waiting for an00:23:10
organ could we not just inject these00:23:13
cryoprotectants into our bodies00:23:14
unfortunately it doesn't work that way00:23:16
some of the crowd protectants that these00:23:18
frogs use are very toxic to mammalian00:23:21
muscle tissue so how to come up with a00:23:24
similar chemical for human organs that's00:23:27
the problem researcher Greg Fahy is00:23:29
trying to solve the ultimate goal is to00:23:31
be able to set up real banks of organs00:23:33
so that they can be moved anywhere ready00:23:36
to be plugged in and within a couple of00:23:37
hours notice after years of work he00:23:41
thinks he may have come up with a00:23:42
cryoprotectant that's safe for mammals00:23:45
like of the chemicals that the Frog uses00:23:49
we have optimized this particular00:23:52
mixture for the mammal over the last 3000:23:55
years or so with this mixture Fahey has00:23:58
successfully preserved rabbit kidneys at00:24:01
below freezing temperatures he starts by00:24:03
removing as much water as possible so00:24:06
the kidney might start off paying 80%00:24:08
water we're gonna reduce it to about 30%00:24:10
water00:24:11
all right so water out antifreeze in it00:24:14
yes the antifreeze is the key it's00:24:17
called m22 a strange substance that's00:24:20
not toxic to rabbits or humans and as00:24:24
you can see at room temperature it's00:24:25
clearly a liquid I imagine m22 must of00:24:29
course work better than M 20 and 2100:24:32
well and 22 is named because it's00:24:36
intended to be used at minus 22 degrees00:24:38
Celsius which is minus 8 degrees00:24:41
Fahrenheit and when they take it down00:24:43
below those temperatures it behaves00:24:45
strangely cooled to below minus 10000:24:49
degrees Fahrenheit and it's now like a00:24:52
viscous syrup pump this into a kidney00:24:55
and no matter how cold the organ gets it00:24:58
won't freeze how does that work unlike00:25:01
solid ice where molecules are tightly00:25:04
organized faiis cryoprotectant remains00:25:07
liquid no matter how cold it gets at a00:25:10
certain point there's insufficient heat00:25:12
energy in the system to maintain00:25:14
molecular motions and the system just00:25:17
locks up as a solid it's not a frozen00:25:20
solid we're going to a very different00:25:22
kind of solid state so it's a solid but00:25:25
it's not as called a glassy solid state00:25:28
sort of like a windowpane so it's not00:25:31
called freezing organs you're verifying00:25:34
those Oregon bits you're fine it took00:25:37
them about four hours to bring the00:25:38
kidney into this state this is now solid00:25:42
a kidney in the solution surrounding it00:25:44
is that a temperature of minus 19000:25:47
Fahrenheit it is a solid glass through00:25:50
and through frozen only in time it's00:25:53
just like it was in the liquid state the00:25:57
only difference is that nothing in the00:25:58
liquid can move anymore and of course if00:26:00
nothing can move nothing can change00:26:02
nothing can change then you have00:26:04
perpetual preservation forever00:26:07
well 100 years forever as far as you're00:26:10
concerned Fahey and his team have00:26:14
successfully re-implanted one of these00:26:16
kidneys into a rabbit and we believe00:26:18
that we can put any organ into a00:26:21
vitrified state with enough effort and00:26:23
time by making organs colder without00:26:25
actually freezing them he hopes to make00:26:28
organ banking a reality if we can do00:26:31
that then that organ can wait as long as00:26:33
it takes for the right person to come00:26:35
along who needs it00:26:38
from cooling soldiers and saving heart00:26:40
attack victims to preserving organs the00:26:43
cold has amazing potential and as I00:26:46
continue my journey down the thermometer00:26:47
moving from the world inside us to the00:26:50
world around us00:26:51
I'm headed to the last place you'd think00:26:53
anyone would want to make colder00:26:55
Fairbanks Alaska I trekked there to find00:26:59
out why life here seems to revolve00:27:02
around snow and ice whether it's just00:27:05
playing or beautiful works of fine art00:27:07
it's very handsome and while snow00:27:10
blankets the ground from early fall to00:27:12
late spring much of the earth underneath00:27:14
stays frozen year-round00:27:16
it's called permafrost but there's a big00:27:20
problem it's not so perma when you put a00:27:23
heated building on it or even an asphalt00:27:25
road permafrost melts it wasn't always00:27:29
wavy like this oh no when this road was00:27:31
first constructed it was perfectly level00:27:34
houses are sinking into the ground you00:27:37
can see that many of them are not00:27:39
particularly level and this doesn't just00:27:41
happen overnight no of course it started00:27:45
with probably 40 years ago maybe sir do00:27:47
some never no one ever thought would get00:27:49
like that you must have noticed that00:27:51
things were tipping a little bit your00:27:53
coffee cup would slide across the table00:27:55
well it wasn't that extreme because00:27:57
anyone's common sense would level the00:27:59
table no matter what condition you're in00:28:01
good point but what exactly is00:28:04
permafrost anyway watch your head Dan00:28:07
white of the University of Alaska00:28:09
Fairbanks00:28:11
Oh took the underground to find out this00:28:16
tunnel is the army and University of00:28:18
Alaska's permafrost joint research00:28:20
facility00:28:21
everything here is permafrost when it00:28:24
comes to building houses and roads there00:28:26
are two different kinds of permafrost00:28:28
gravelly materials the kind you can00:28:30
build on if you had a building a road on00:28:34
top of this and you thought that out it00:28:36
would remain stable the other kind of00:28:39
permafrost is the problem buying grain00:28:41
soil which gets its structural integrity00:28:43
from frozen water that acts as cement so00:28:46
long as it's in the frozen state you can00:28:48
see that it's structurally sound you can00:28:50
build roads or bridges or houses on00:28:52
something like this the problem though00:28:55
is that once it warms up it turns into00:28:58
this a scientific principle we call no00:29:01
melting exactly and it's only going to00:29:04
get worse as global temperatures rise so00:29:08
how to stop it we use these thermo siphon devices00:29:11
thermo siphon edr mac is chief engineer00:29:14
with the companies that invented these00:29:16
things oh it's pretty simple it's just a00:29:19
tube here's how it works first you put00:29:23
some liquid in next you suck out all the00:29:26
air to create a vacuum then you get00:29:29
something cold I've got a little00:29:30
Fairbanks snow remember how things00:29:33
always move from hot to cold well00:29:36
because the snow is colder than the air00:29:38
in the room oh it's going nuts the cold00:29:42
draws the heat from the room into the00:29:44
tube00:29:46
and it's cool to the touch it can't be00:29:48
boiling why is it doing it your boiling00:29:51
point is dependent not only on00:29:52
temperature but on the pressure inside00:29:55
your tube or in your system because it's00:29:58
in a vacuum it can boil at room00:30:00
temperature00:30:01
moving the heat from the room into the00:30:03
snow okay got it but how in the world is00:30:07
this going to save the permafrost well00:30:10
when you place one of these in00:30:11
permafrost the heat from the permafrost00:30:13
moves into the thermo siphon one doesn't00:30:16
think of permafrost as having heat00:30:18
everything has heated in the wintertime00:30:21
the permafrost is warmer than the air00:30:26
[Music]00:30:35
that heat goes from warm to cold okay so00:30:40
the heat from the permafrost moves into00:30:42
the thermo siphon the liquid inside00:30:44
boils turning into a gas which rises up00:30:48
carrying the heat with it when it gets00:30:50
to the surface the heat moves out into00:30:53
the colder air so it stops thawing00:30:57
exactly and that works it's true in00:31:01
Fairbanks you can see them around00:31:02
buildings and roads and along the eight00:31:07
hundred miles of the Alaskan pipeline00:31:09
you'll find 124 thousand of them ok so00:31:14
right now the building's heat would be00:31:17
thawing the permafrost except that these00:31:19
devices are sucking the heat out right00:31:20
exactly blasting into the colder air but00:31:23
I found a problem with your system in00:31:25
the summer the air out here is not cold00:31:29
so it would not be sucking heat out I've00:31:31
got you00:31:33
well in the wintertime with super cooler00:31:37
so to speak so that'll have access cold00:31:39
for the summer00:31:40
exactly oh so okay well what evidence do00:31:44
I have that it's actually working you00:31:46
can use this thermal imaging camera oh00:31:48
wow00:31:49
they're glowing you remember the thermal00:31:52
camera it sees cold areas as darker and warmer00:31:55
areas as lighter so we can see that00:31:58
there is heat coming out of them thar00:32:00
pipes but there's only one way to know00:32:03
for sure Oh David there's other ways to do that00:32:07
[Music]00:32:09
but Fairbanks is hot compared to where00:32:12
we're going we're plummeting over 20000:32:15
degrees colder than any place on earth00:32:17
where physicists say a whole new world00:32:20
begins minus 320 degrees Fahrenheit00:32:23
that's the temperature of this liquid00:32:25
nitrogen so much fun00:32:31
[Music]00:32:33
[Applause]00:32:34
[Music]00:32:37
liquid-nitrogen folks00:32:41
the ultimate in coal00:32:44
[Music]00:32:45
actually nowhere near the ultimate in00:32:49
cold this is just Eric Cornell knows00:32:52
cold liquid nitrogen isn't even close he00:32:55
and his colleagues won a Nobel Prize for00:32:58
using it to discover a new state of00:32:59
matter Cornell says were headed to a00:33:02
place so cold that someone had to invent00:33:05
a whole new thermometer just to get00:33:07
there yes Kelvin an entirely different00:33:09
one where zero really means something00:33:11
the bottom the very lowest temperature00:33:14
you can get to we call an absolute zero00:33:15
but this this has a zero on it so check00:33:18
yourself Jake said yeah00:33:21
I went down 2-0 and look I've got an00:33:23
amplifier goes up to 11 doesn't mean the00:33:28
Kelvin in the Kelvin scale is 19th00:33:30
century physicist Lord Kelvin who00:33:33
wondered if temperature is a measure of00:33:35
atomic motion with less and less than00:33:37
farther down you go why not make 0 the00:33:41
place where all motion would stop he00:33:43
calculated that would happen at minus00:33:45
450 nine point six seven degrees00:33:48
Fahrenheit which he made zero on his00:33:51
scale a real zero an absolute zero so in00:33:55
the Kelvin world room temperature would00:33:57
be it's about 300 and water freezes at00:34:00
273 Kelvin and this liquid nitrogen 7700:34:05
Kelvin truthfully matter is compared to00:34:08
where we're going00:34:09
77 Kelvin is positively balmy in fact as00:34:13
you get things colder and colder that's00:34:15
actually when they start to get the most00:34:17
interesting indeed to continue on will00:34:20
need to shed our Fahrenheit scale and00:34:23
replace it with Lord kelvins then take a00:34:27
rapid plunge down to 4 Kelvin 4 Kelvin00:34:32
where the bizarre property of00:34:34
superconductivity was first discovered00:34:36
there's certain materials that when you00:34:39
get it really cold weird things happen00:34:41
little did I know that the substance00:34:43
that would take us there really isn't00:34:45
bizarre at all helium but if we turn00:34:51
into liquid it's 4 Kelvin so really cold00:34:55
Melissa Gooch at the University of00:34:56
Houston is about to show me how when00:34:58
certain materials this is a piece of00:35:01
lead this is led get super cold they00:35:04
start behaving in ways once thought00:35:06
impossible to do this she lowers the00:35:08
lead into this tank of liquid helium to00:35:11
cool it to a temperature of 7 degrees00:35:13
Kelvin00:35:14
looks like the temperature is plummeting00:35:16
in the warp core captain if we keep00:35:18
cooling that ordinary lump of lead in00:35:20
there00:35:21
undergoes a transformation is it in fact00:35:27
a superconductor yes00:35:31
wait what is a superconductor or for00:35:34
that matter what's a regular conductor00:35:36
conductors are materials that allow00:35:39
electricity to flow through like copper00:35:42
most of the wiring in your house is00:35:44
copper but copper has a problem when00:35:47
electricity flows through it electrons00:35:50
bump around wasting energy as heat00:35:53
that's called resistance a00:35:56
superconductor has no resistance zero so00:36:00
the current flows through it without00:36:01
wasting any energy this is copper wire00:36:05
that we have in our house normally and00:36:07
these are normal lightbulbs but Gooch is00:36:10
going to run much less power through00:36:11
them than normal so we're at 12 volts00:36:13
that's only a tenth of the voltage we00:36:15
use in our homes it's not very bright00:36:18
that's what we get from the copper wire00:36:20
watch what happens when we run the same00:36:22
12 volts through the superconductor from00:36:25
the dull glow00:36:26
to full throttle so you're getting a lot00:36:28
more out of your luck getting a lot more00:36:30
out of it00:36:31
oh you're wasting a lot less yes00:36:34
scaled-up that wasted energy just in the00:36:37
United States Grid alone could power 1400:36:40
New York cities every year but that's00:36:43
just the start00:36:44
scientists have been working on00:36:46
harnessing the properties of00:36:47
superconductivity for much more exotic00:36:49
applications here at the University of00:36:55
Paris professor elastic udo showed me00:36:58
something extraordinary that happens00:36:59
when a really cold superconductor meets00:37:02
an ordinary magnetization you know and00:37:06
this little puck is just the tip of the00:37:09
iceberg00:37:11
come on00:37:14
[Music]00:37:17
I'm actually surfing above the ground00:37:21
and it's more than just fun and games00:37:25
engineers in Japan are already scaling00:37:28
it up to create the world's first00:37:30
superconductor maglev passenger train it00:37:34
flies above its tracks at speeds up to00:37:37
311 miles per hour and it's cold that00:37:40
makes it happen so what's the trick you00:37:44
might think that the superconductor is00:37:45
acting just like a magnet this is now a00:37:48
magnet but you'd be wrong00:37:49
is not like a magnet because here you00:37:52
have both repulsion and attraction these00:37:55
two disks have repulsion and attraction00:37:58
both and that's not how a proper magnet00:38:01
behaves it can't do both at the same00:38:03
time the superconductor can because it00:38:07
warps the magnetic field of the magnet00:38:09
to a point where it attracts and repels00:38:12
at the same time it's both directions00:38:14
this is the watch but how is this00:38:17
possible how do superconductors actually00:38:20
work the crazy part is scientists don't00:38:24
really know it has something to do with00:38:26
that cue word okay where we're going now00:38:30
two degrees Kelvin physicists are00:38:33
unlocking a whole new world of cold00:38:35
where the laws of nature appear to break00:38:37
down00:38:42
you again yes welcome to my world00:38:46
what is this place this is a matter of00:38:48
menagerie00:38:49
you know like in states of matter I do00:38:51
know states of matter solids liquids00:38:54
gases now you've come to like a whole00:38:57
zoo of different states of matter that00:39:00
is called strange matter I agree with00:39:03
that we think that it only exists in the00:39:06
Centers and neutron stars this what I'm00:39:09
particularly proud of that is the00:39:11
bose-einstein condensation we discovered00:39:15
that stuff I want to know about rise00:39:17
nice like how you work that in yeah00:39:20
how many more states of matter are there00:39:23
truth is some people say hundreds look00:39:25
at that it's called a superfluid super00:39:28
food yes you even think a squirrel what00:39:31
do you think is gonna happen when I00:39:33
start yeah it's gonna go around and00:39:35
around in the bucket yeah a little00:39:39
faster a superfluid is a state of matter00:39:42
found at temperatures below two00:39:44
Elven Oh weird a little faster yeah yeah00:39:48
and once these get started they'll swirl00:39:52
forever that is quantum mechanics in00:39:56
action as I'm discovering quantum00:39:59
mechanics is a kind of physics where the00:40:01
usual rules don't apply now think of it00:40:04
this way in the ordinary world you me00:40:08
Adam anything you want they're kind of00:40:10
like balls just think these balls here00:40:12
they bounce they roll around they mash00:40:14
off each other00:40:15
but in the quantum mechanical world each00:40:17
of the atoms starts to act more and more00:40:19
like a wave and eventually the wave of00:40:21
one atom starts to grow into the wave of00:40:23
the other and before you know it and you00:40:26
can't tell one from the other Adam could00:40:28
be over here00:40:29
or it could be over there and the cool00:40:31
thing is it good in some sense really be00:40:33
both at the same time both at the same00:40:35
time yeah I mean how can something be in00:40:37
two places at once00:40:38
um it's not something we understand that00:40:41
well either we just go with it00:40:42
no the mechanics is like that yeah and00:40:45
so I the depart for colder places to see00:40:51
how this wantem weirdness can be00:40:53
harnessed to solve real-world problems00:40:55
to do that we'll need to inch closer a00:40:58
tenth of a degree a hundredth of a00:41:01
degree above absolute zero welcome to00:41:05
one of the coldest places in the00:41:07
universe in an office park in the00:41:10
Vancouver suburb meet physicist Jordi00:41:13
rows of d-wave systems who claims00:41:16
they've used cold to build the world's00:41:18
first commercial quantum computer00:41:20
it's c-3po is wedding cake this is00:41:23
quantum computer and what does that mean00:41:26
you have to rethink the way you think00:41:28
about computers to wrap your head around00:41:29
it remember that quantum strangeness00:41:32
below 2 Kelvin inside this giant00:41:35
refrigerator Rosa's team keeps a few00:41:37
atoms a hundred times colder all to00:41:40
harness those weird abilities to make a00:41:42
new kind of computer so let me get this00:41:45
straight00:41:46
this entire company this entire building00:41:48
is an entire meat locker00:41:50
this entire million dollar apparatus is00:41:52
all designed just to make that tiny chip00:41:57
cold yes what does the cold have to do00:42:00
with the computing in quantum mechanics00:42:02
the properties that we're trying to00:42:05
harness are very easily washed out by00:42:08
the movement of the atoms in the00:42:09
processor as you go down the plates00:42:12
through 4 Kelvin 0.7 0.1 at each stage00:42:16
we want to remove the wiggling of the00:42:18
atoms so that they just calm down take a00:42:21
seat on the couch relax and when they do00:42:23
that these wonderful powerful magical00:42:27
properties that exist in quantum00:42:29
mechanics blossom out00:42:32
quantum properties like being in two00:42:35
places at once00:42:36
that magical ability allows d-wave to00:42:39
program their computers in a very00:42:40
special way the fundamental piece of00:42:43
information storage in this is a device00:42:45
called a qubit like the biblical00:42:47
measurements very unlike the biblical00:42:51
measurement a cubit is the quantum00:42:54
version of a bit the basic unit of00:42:57
information in a regular computer a bit00:43:00
can be either a 0 or a 1 but a quantum00:43:03
bit can be either a 0 or a 1 or both 000:43:07
and 1 at the same time00:43:10
this gives it exponentially more power00:43:13
than a conventional computer which would00:43:16
use eight bits just to store a single00:43:18
number between 0 and 256 in a quantum00:43:22
computer eight qubits can store all 25600:43:26
numbers at once the real kicker is when00:43:30
you have a lot of these bits the total00:43:32
number of possibilities doubles every00:43:35
time you add a bit so while 10 qubits00:43:38
can store a thousand 24 numbers 1100:43:41
qubits can store 2048 numbers when you00:43:45
get to one hundred qubits you can store00:43:47
1 million 376 numbers so by the time you00:43:59
get to about 500 bits you have more00:44:02
possibilities than there are atoms in00:44:04
the visible universe what this means is00:44:09
that a quantum computer can tackle00:44:10
problems on a scale beyond any00:44:13
conventional computer from weather00:44:15
prediction and air traffic control to00:44:18
forensics and finance problems on this00:44:21
scale are everywhere and have simply00:44:23
outstripped our abilities to solve them00:44:27
and those some have questioned their00:44:29
claims there are buyers dua --vs first00:44:33
customer aerospace giant Lockheed Martin00:44:36
their f-35 fighter plane is incredibly00:44:39
sophisticated this is a fairly software00:44:48
dependent little plane this has got00:44:50
about nine million lines of code nine00:44:52
million lines of code those nine million00:44:55
lines of code can land a plane on a00:44:57
carrier evade enemy radar and hover like00:45:00
a helicopter00:45:01
trouble is no conventional computer00:45:04
could ever check that software for00:45:06
errors without an army of Engineers is00:45:09
it just too many variables to all00:45:11
consider it the same that's exactly00:45:13
right if you have a million suddenly you00:45:15
can't manage it with any computer on00:45:17
earth which is why now NASA and Google00:45:19
partnered to buy a quantum computer - in00:45:22
hopes of better finding habitable00:45:24
planets and speeding up search can I00:45:27
have one00:45:28
watch what do you guys00:45:33
so d waves chip is one of the coldest00:45:36
things00:45:37
[Music]00:45:46
the universe a hundredth of a degree00:45:49
above absolute zero00:45:50
well we're not done yet I'm about to00:45:53
meet a scientist who can't be bothered00:45:55
with hundreds or even thousands of a00:45:57
degree for that matter00:45:58
aka a milli Kelvin wait we have board by00:46:02
millikelvin we like to go to nano Kelvin00:46:04
that is nano Kelvin nano Kelvin that00:46:08
would be a billionth of a degree00:46:09
billions it's very cool it's a million00:46:13
times cooler than interstellar space00:46:14
it's just about the lowest temperature00:46:17
ever reached a place so clear and cold00:46:21
physicists and see the fundamental laws00:46:23
of nature in action mi t--'s Martin's00:46:27
veer line is going to use sodium atoms00:46:29
to show me how to get there00:46:31
the final frontier of cold Wow and so00:46:35
how do you do that so we can stop over00:46:37
there at the oven the oven step 100:46:40
cook up some sodium atoms the same kind00:46:43
in your table salt to about 700 degrees00:46:46
Fahrenheit that way you can separate00:46:48
them you want to get single atoms to00:46:51
play with single sodium atoms lots of00:46:53
them a whole stream of them step 2 hit00:46:57
him with lasers I know you MIT guys have00:47:00
the reputation of being very smart but I00:47:02
have a little tip for you lasers are hot00:47:04
you might be a little backwards there00:47:06
you might think about Star Trek where00:47:08
they kill people with lasers turns out00:47:10
here with cool atoms down with lasers00:47:14
and they get a recall from it just if00:47:16
you hit a billiard ball with another00:47:18
billiard ball00:47:20
in other words when you hit atoms with00:47:22
just the right amount of laser light it00:47:24
acts like a little shove in the opposite00:47:26
direction that the atom is moving00:47:28
slowing it down if you look down here00:47:31
you will actually see the cold cloud00:47:34
right there in the center of the vacuum00:47:36
so that glowing star thing looks it00:47:38
looks like the Sun did it out to be00:47:40
super super hot no it's actually00:47:42
extremely cold those are a billion atoms00:47:45
cooled to a milli Kelvin a thousandth of00:47:49
a degree above absolute zero but lasers00:47:52
can get us only so far you cannot reach00:47:55
the nano Kelvin temperatures just with00:47:57
laser cooling so we need another00:47:59
technique which brings us to step three00:48:03
get out your coffee cup what takes over00:48:06
after laser cooling is what we call00:48:08
evaporative cooling it's the same thing00:48:10
that happens to your coffee right now00:48:12
because it's just cooling down so if you00:48:15
now force it a little bit by blowing on00:48:17
the coffee you speed that process up the00:48:21
coffee gets cold more quickly that's00:48:23
exactly what we do here but instead of a00:48:26
coffee cup steer line uses a cup made of00:48:28
magnetic fields to trap his atoms then00:48:32
he blows on it with radiation and lowers00:48:35
the rim of the cup to let the hotter00:48:36
atoms escape so now we're gonna do this00:48:39
coffee cup cooling it's gonna bring us00:48:41
to nano Kelvin okay ready for this yes00:48:45
let's do this so can you please switch00:48:48
on this stuff do this this is great00:48:52
let's switch on this guy00:48:54
and then this awesome knob here press00:48:57
the awesome white button fantastic so00:48:59
that's good please press f12 always00:49:02
wondered with f12 does so you see now00:49:05
the atoms are cooling because the cloud00:49:07
size gets smaller and smaller and00:49:09
smaller here you see the temperature00:49:10
drop drop drop drop go00:49:13
it takes a few minutes but eventually00:49:16
the atoms become so cold they lose their00:49:19
individual identities altogether and00:49:21
coalesce into that new state of matter00:49:24
called a bose-einstein condensate wait a00:49:28
minute look at the temperature yeah it's00:49:33
very cold 77 billion billion hundred 27700:49:37
billions of a degree Kelvin this is the00:49:40
coldest spot in the universe right now00:49:42
amazing they're not even in outer space00:49:44
no no outer space is a million times00:49:46
harder not the Dark Side of the Moon00:49:48
though it's like all the comments00:49:50
terrible yeah00:49:51
black holes nothing this is it is this00:49:53
in this room yes00:49:54
that's amazing I would ask its00:49:56
autographs I cup but it's not about00:50:00
setting obscure records what fear line00:50:02
is excited about is what these exotic00:50:04
states of matter can teach us about the00:50:06
universe our puffs of gas teaches us00:50:09
about the neutron stars or split second00:50:12
after the Big Bang there was this weird00:50:15
form of metal called a quark-gluon00:50:16
plasma a superhot type of matter in the00:50:20
early universe that would give rise to00:50:21
everything we see today so you're00:50:24
telling me that this tiny freezing-cold00:50:27
dot can teach us something about00:50:29
enormous blazing hot stuff that's the00:50:33
fun part of physics that connects these00:50:34
very different areas the very hot very00:50:36
cold everything is governed by the same00:50:39
laws00:50:41
amazingly what happens at these ultra00:50:43
cold temperatures is that atoms get so00:50:45
smeared out their waves start looking00:50:48
indistinguishable from those of superhot00:50:50
particles under extreme pressure like00:50:54
those inside the inner core of neutron00:50:56
stars so dense a teaspoon of them weighs00:50:59
10 billion tons of Earline and others00:51:04
can now simulate substances like this in00:51:06
their labs and probe their mysteries00:51:08
it's incredible and then in a couple00:51:11
more years you'll finally do it you'll00:51:13
hit zero point zero absolute zero and00:51:16
we'll be done unfortunately it's never00:51:18
possible to reach absolute zero well00:51:20
there's always gonna be a little little00:51:22
drop of energy sitting around somewhere00:51:25
it turns out it's impossible to get to00:51:28
absolute zero because no matter how cold00:51:31
you get everything has tiny quantum00:51:34
jitters and where you have motion even a00:51:37
tiny amount you have heat but that's not00:51:41
stopping scientists from getting even00:51:43
colder to explore the fundamental laws00:51:45
of nature and how our universe came to00:51:48
be just the way noise can drown out00:51:51
music heat is like the noise that00:51:52
obscures things if you get things really00:51:55
really cold you sort of drown out you00:51:59
get damp down all the noise and you can00:52:00
listen to what nature is whispering to00:52:03
you00:52:06
it's uncharted territory00:52:10
like other frontiers of science cold has00:52:13
opened the doors to new worlds where the00:52:17
Dead may get a second chance the planet00:52:20
can be cooled by clever innovation and00:52:23
the universe may be made more00:52:26
understandable the secrets are all00:52:29
around us as we learn to make stuff00:52:32
holder00:52:40
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