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экономика

00:00:01

hello

00:00:03

today's lecture we will look at the

00:00:08

problem of production costs and profits

00:00:13

production costs are related to the costs of the

00:00:18

corresponding resources so when

00:00:20

we say costs it means we are

00:00:24

talking about the use by

00:00:25

enterprises of the corresponding resources

00:00:28

labor capital land

00:00:31

money and so on, that is, we are

00:00:35

talking about

00:00:37

wages,

00:00:39

depreciation, costs of raw materials and materials,

00:00:45

maintenance of the

00:00:47

administrative and managerial apparatus,

00:00:48

and so on, therefore,

00:00:52

production costs represent the

00:00:56

entire totality of costs

00:00:59

incurred for the production of

00:01:02

products.

00:01:07

We will now consider

00:01:10

production costs according to various criteria. The

00:01:13

first

00:01:15

differentiation of costs is the distinction

00:01:19

between external and internal according to the criterion of

00:01:22

ownership of costs in order for

00:01:24

us to determine on the basis of those

00:01:29

or other types of costs such as kukui, what

00:01:33

types of profit does the enterprise receive

00:01:36

and then move on to other criteria for

00:01:40

the classification of costs,

00:01:43

their division into constant and variable

00:01:50

according to the criteria of ownership, production costs

00:01:54

are divided into explicit or externally and

00:01:59

internally and either

00:02:01

implicit

00:02:06

internal costs or

00:02:09

implicit costs,

00:02:12

these are those costs that are

00:02:17

located in the ownership of the enterprise,

00:02:20

therefore, when we talk about the

00:02:22

ownership of certain

00:02:26

costs, then in this case, that is,

00:02:28

explicit and implicit, whether internal or external,

00:02:31

then we are talking about these costs

00:02:34

associated

00:02:36

with the use of

00:02:38

resources that are the property of the

00:02:41

enterprise, that is, they do not go

00:02:44

to the market for acquisition of these

00:02:46

resources or and when we talk about

00:02:50

external costs,

00:02:52

we must remember that in this case

00:02:55

we are talking about the fact that the

00:02:58

producer does not have these

00:03:01

resources and must restrain himself, that is,

00:03:05

spend a certain amount of money to acquire them,

00:03:12

so let’s define external

00:03:15

costs external or explicit costs are the

00:03:20

costs of the enterprise

00:03:22

and the purchase of resources on the market, these

00:03:27

resources are not the property of the

00:03:29

enterprise,

00:03:30

so it is forced to purchase them for

00:03:34

money,

00:03:38

I would like to draw your attention to the fact that

00:03:41

external costs can also be called

00:03:45

accounting costs, that is, they are

00:03:47

obvious and obvious why because all

00:03:51

these costs pass

00:03:54

or are taken into account in the books of account

00:03:58

and why therefore they are explicit and obvious and

00:04:03

on the other hand when we talk about

00:04:06

internal costs, then internal or

00:04:10

implicit costs associated with the

00:04:12

use of resources belong to their

00:04:15

enterprise,

00:04:17

the costs with their use

00:04:20

do not take the form of cash payments

00:04:24

but their assessment is carried out on the basis

00:04:27

market prices for

00:04:30

identical resources,

00:04:38

in order to make it more clear,

00:04:41

let us draw your attention to

00:04:45

specific examples

00:04:48

to consider the

00:04:53

difference between internal and external

00:04:58

costs,

00:05:02

let’s assume that if we are talking about

00:05:05

hiring an employee, that is, an entrepreneur

00:05:10

hires an employee, then the costs in the form of

00:05:13

wages are external costs

00:05:16

because they are obvious to us we pay for the

00:05:18

labor of the employee and,

00:05:21

on the contrary, if I am an entrepreneur and

00:05:24

at the same time work at my

00:05:26

enterprise, then in this case

00:05:29

labor is a resource, labor as such or labor

00:05:33

power belongs to me and in this case

00:05:37

these costs do not pass through, they are

00:05:41

obvious, they do not pass through

00:05:45

accounting, that is, accounting books, if

00:05:48

this in this case, the cost of which I

00:05:51

would pay in the form of wages to an

00:05:54

employee is

00:05:56

included in internal costs

00:06:00

since I do not pay myself wages; this

00:06:04

is part of the total

00:06:07

business income; the same

00:06:10

raw materials,

00:06:11

if I buy raw materials, let’s say, if I am

00:06:15

engaged in canning cucumbers, then in

00:06:18

this in this case, I produce canned food, in this

00:06:20

case, I buy cucumbers, in this case,

00:06:24

these costs will be external,

00:06:27

obvious and obvious, they will be taken into account in the

00:06:29

books of accounts, and on the contrary, if I

00:06:32

canned

00:06:34

cucumbers that I grow myself,

00:06:36

I did not buy and this is the result of the

00:06:41

activities of the enterprise itself, the

00:06:44

research is the property of the

00:06:47

enterprise, it does not belong to the enterprise and

00:06:49

therefore they are

00:06:51

internal costs but will be

00:06:54

valued at the market price of cucumbers

00:06:57

accordingly and will be included in

00:07:00

costs, but as

00:07:03

internal costs,

00:07:06

any costs can be both external and

00:07:09

internal except for

00:07:12

entrepreneurial talent, which

00:07:14

is always an internal resource

00:07:18

and its use refers to

00:07:21

internal costs and

00:07:27

so we must decide that any

00:07:31

again, no matter, any costs can be

00:07:34

internal and external, but simply,

00:07:37

if I don’t have a green plot on which

00:07:39

my enterprise would be located,

00:07:41

I must rent this land, in

00:07:44

this case it will be an externally

00:07:47

obvious cost, I pay rent, it’s obvious

00:07:51

if I’m a land owner the site belongs to the

00:07:54

torrent meter will include

00:07:56

internal costs

00:07:58

but it does not pass anywhere is not taken into account

00:08:01

for the books if I borrow

00:08:07

money capital I take out a loan in this

00:08:10

case the interest that I pay for this

00:08:14

loan will be attributed to external costs

00:08:17

but if I have sufficient

00:08:21

cash and I invest then in this

00:08:24

case it is the king of interest who will not

00:08:28

pay interest to anyone, we are included as

00:08:30

internal costs

00:08:33

since this is equivalent to if I did not

00:08:37

invest this money in my business but

00:08:41

put this money in the bank, then I would

00:08:44

receive the corresponding interest, that is,

00:08:47

income on the monetary contribution and, therefore,

00:08:50

these monetary resources are assessed by a

00:08:53

fair percentage or interest rate, and

00:09:02

from this point of view, we need to

00:09:06

remember that

00:09:13

in addition to at least profit, which we will

00:09:17

consider further, accounting

00:09:20

economic for the resource that

00:09:24

the entrepreneur has, the entrepreneur and this

00:09:27

entrepreneurial talent

00:09:29

is a specific resource and it can be

00:09:33

only attributed to internal costs

00:09:38

because entrepreneurial talent

00:09:40

belongs to the entrepreneur good

00:09:43

excellent bad unsatisfactory and

00:09:46

so on no matter what it is therefore from

00:09:49

this point of view we must

00:09:52

clearly understand that for this resource

00:09:56

that the entrepreneur

00:09:59

uses, he must receive a certain

00:10:03

income in the form of normal

00:10:07

profit, that is income from

00:10:09

entrepreneurial talent is called

00:10:12

normal profit;

00:10:15

normal profit is a reward for

00:10:19

entrepreneurial talent;

00:10:20

it is always an integral part of

00:10:24

internal costs;

00:10:28

therefore, I

00:10:30

also draw attention to the fact that literally

00:10:33

all costs can be internal and

00:10:37

external

00:10:38

except for entrepreneurial talent, and

00:10:42

in this case one should not confuse

00:10:46

entrepreneurial talent as a resource as an

00:10:48

independent resource

00:10:51

management resource, that is, a manager,

00:10:54

the labor of a manager, I can hire a manager,

00:10:57

but this will not be entrepreneurial

00:11:00

talent because the manager is just a

00:11:03

highly qualified hired employee

00:11:05

who will

00:11:07

manage

00:11:09

real capital, I risk capital as an

00:11:12

entrepreneur, and this risk is

00:11:15

revived or normal profit is a

00:11:17

return of the reward for my risk and for

00:11:21

entrepreneurship

00:11:22

if I work normally and

00:11:25

naturally a normal profit should

00:11:27

be

00:11:30

obtained by me as an entrepreneur

00:11:39

due to the fact that we see we have

00:11:43

different types of costs,

00:11:45

it is necessary to pay attention to the

00:11:50

different types of profit, the

00:11:54

different contents of internal and

00:11:56

external costs

00:11:58

necessitate the

00:12:00

distinction between

00:12:02

accounting and economic

00:12:05

profit and

00:12:10

so the first accounting profit and

00:12:15

then consider economic profit

00:12:19

accounting profit is the

00:12:22

difference between total revenue or

00:12:26

gross income and external costs

00:12:31

if you write the formula this is accounting

00:12:35

profit equals gross income minus

00:12:38

external costs and so pay attention

00:12:43

I told you to make it easier to remember

00:12:45

accounting profit that external

00:12:48

costs pass through or teaches y passes

00:12:51

through the books of account pass

00:12:54

through accounting therefore in this

00:12:56

case external costs could be called

00:12:59

accounting costs will leave to be

00:13:02

subtracted

00:13:04

if we subtract these costs then we

00:13:07

will receive accordingly accounting

00:13:10

profit

00:13:12

as for economic profit this is

00:13:17

its 2nd form then economic profit is

00:13:21

equal the difference between gross income and

00:13:25

total costs

00:13:27

which represent the sum of external

00:13:30

costs and internal costs and

00:13:35

the corresponding entry we see

00:13:38

economic profit is equal to gross income

00:13:41

minus all costs, that is, external and

00:13:45

internal I mucus of gross income we

00:13:48

subtract all costs or total costs

00:13:53

we will get economic

00:13:56

profit for

00:14:01

in order to

00:14:03

present the relationship between

00:14:06

economic and accounting profit,

00:14:10

as well as the relationship between

00:14:11

accounting profit and economic

00:14:14

normal profit, we turn to the

00:14:17

corresponding formulas that

00:14:20

express

00:14:21

these relationships between these categories,

00:14:27

so the top line is gross income minus

00:14:31

external costs

00:14:33

or accounting we get

00:14:36

accounting profit

00:14:37

if from accounting profit we

00:14:41

-others have already written down to subtract

00:14:43

internal costs, and what else does this

00:14:46

mean from gross income, subtract external

00:14:50

costs and internal costs, we

00:14:52

get economic profit,

00:14:55

so accounting profit is greater than

00:14:58

economic profit by the amount of

00:15:01

internal costs, and finally the third

00:15:05

line was accounting profit equal to

00:15:09

economic profit and plus normal

00:15:13

profit and plus other mole internal

00:15:16

costs,

00:15:17

or it could be written differently,

00:15:22

accounting profit is equal to profit and

00:15:26

economic plus

00:15:29

internal costs, all in this case

00:15:32

we have identified normal profit as a part of internal

00:15:35

costs

00:15:36

as a reward for

00:15:40

talent, which is included in the internal

00:15:42

costs of

00:15:47

communication with this distinction,

00:15:52

it is necessary to remember that In addition to the

00:15:57

economic profit that

00:16:00

the enterprise receives by making the corresponding

00:16:02

expenses,

00:16:03

it can also receive additional

00:16:07

income or the so-called economic

00:16:10

rent.

00:16:12

Economic rent

00:16:14

is income arising from the uniqueness of a

00:16:17

resource and

00:16:20

acting as a reward

00:16:23

for exceptional talents.

00:16:28

Economic rent is received in particular by

00:16:32

singers, musicians,

00:16:33

athletes and so further we can say

00:16:38

that economic rent

00:16:41

is monopolistic in

00:16:44

nature

00:16:48

since in this case the

00:16:51

unique properties of singers, athletes,

00:16:54

musicians are manifested, and so on, this is equivalent

00:16:57

to as if we had unique

00:17:02

natural conditions, that is, a microclimate of a

00:17:06

certain local place that

00:17:09

allows us to grow certain

00:17:12

products beyond high quality in this

00:17:15

case also arises, this is all over

00:17:18

economic rent, or you can say

00:17:22

over monopoly profit, and

00:17:25

we looked at the types of profits and

00:17:30

costs, it was necessary for us to consider

00:17:33

internal and external costs in

00:17:35

order to differentiate

00:17:37

and see the differences between economic

00:17:41

profit, accounting profit and

00:17:44

normal profit in the future we

00:17:48

will focus on economic

00:17:51

profit why because

00:17:54

entrepreneurs entering into

00:17:58

competition are fighting for economic

00:18:01

profit and therefore

00:18:04

economic profit is the object of

00:18:07

competition between

00:18:09

entrepreneurs

00:18:11

in the future we will

00:18:14

rarely return from normal profit

00:18:17

and accounting where it will be said in

00:18:20

place . and basically, in the future, the analysis

00:18:25

concentrates on

00:18:26

economic profit, and so once again,

00:18:29

economic profit is the difference between

00:18:34

gross income and all, that is, total

00:18:39

costs, which includes

00:18:42

internally and externally,

00:18:45

we looked at the classification of costs

00:18:48

based on the criterion of ownership of these

00:18:52

resources, that is, whether they are

00:18:54

the property of the entrepreneur or they

00:18:58

are the object of apple entrepreneurs,

00:19:02

and now we will consider costs according to another

00:19:05

criterion

00:19:07

according to the criterion of dependence

00:19:11

on the volume of production,

00:19:15

therefore, from this point of view, we must

00:19:18

pay attention to the time factor in

00:19:21

the long run,

00:19:24

all costs are

00:19:27

variable, that is, they change; in

00:19:31

this case, the fixed capital changes, it is

00:19:34

updated production is modernized,

00:19:37

improved,

00:19:39

reorganized, and

00:19:41

therefore everything changes,

00:19:44

the number of hired workers is

00:19:46

used, the raw materials used, the

00:19:50

resulting product, and so on, therefore, from

00:19:53

this point of view, in

00:19:55

the long run, there is no point in

00:19:58

distinguishing between costs into fixed

00:20:01

and variable; they are all

00:20:04

variable, which is also a

00:20:07

changing cost, and

00:20:10

in the short run, as since we

00:20:14

need an analysis of costs,

00:20:18

which is called

00:20:20

constants and variables, the

00:20:23

criterion for distinguishing

00:20:26

in this case into constants and

00:20:30

variables is their dependence or the

00:20:34

degree of their change or, in general, the reaction

00:20:39

of these costs to changes in the scale of

00:20:42

production,

00:20:44

so depending on the period in

00:20:49

which the costs are incurred, production costs

00:20:53

are different nature in the long

00:20:57

run, all costs are

00:21:00

variable; in the short run, they are

00:21:03

divided into fixed and

00:21:07

variable costs; the

00:21:14

criterion for distinguishing costs into

00:21:16

fixed variables is their

00:21:19

reaction to changes in the volume of output;

00:21:29

therefore, if costs react, that is,

00:21:35

changes their value under the influence of an

00:21:38

expansion or reduction in the

00:21:42

volume of output,

00:21:46

then these costs will be called

00:21:49

variable once again packs if they

00:21:52

change, but if the costs remain

00:21:55

unchanged

00:21:58

when the volume of production is reduced

00:22:01

down to zero, that is, we have stopped

00:22:04

production, but the costs

00:22:07

will nevertheless exist, or we

00:22:09

increase the volume of production without limit, they

00:22:12

remain unchanged, these are the costs

00:22:16

the pavement is called

00:22:18

constant and so fixed costs

00:22:22

are those costs that do not change

00:22:26

their value under the influence of an

00:22:30

increase or decrease in the

00:22:32

volume of production.

00:22:37

As for variable costs,

00:22:42

production costs that change

00:22:46

their value along with a change in the volume of

00:22:49

output are called

00:22:52

variable costs

00:22:59

as an example in order to better

00:23:02

master constant and variable costs

00:23:06

need to pay attention to

00:23:11

this example, let's assume

00:23:15

wages,

00:23:16

if we increase the volume of production,

00:23:19

that is,

00:23:20

we produced 10 steel, now we

00:23:23

produce 15 table, it is clear that to

00:23:27

perform this work you need

00:23:30

either a larger number

00:23:34

of workers or a larger number of

00:23:38

hours that a research worker must work

00:23:40

in any In this case,

00:23:43

wages will increase as

00:23:47

production increases by table, therefore

00:23:50

raw materials, in the same way, 10

00:23:54

tables need less raw materials than

00:23:57

15 tables,

00:23:59

obviously

00:24:01

less raw materials and materials are needed for 5

00:24:05

tables than 10 tables, therefore

00:24:08

if the costs and these costs are the

00:24:11

above-mentioned ones I mentioned earlier

00:24:14

reacts change as a result of

00:24:17

changes in output are not

00:24:20

variable costs

00:24:22

costs of which do not react in any

00:24:27

way no matter how

00:24:28

significantly we increase

00:24:30

production volumes they are constant for

00:24:33

example we took out a loan therefore

00:24:37

we must pay interest annually in

00:24:41

accordance with the interest rate of

00:24:43

interest to the income on the

00:24:46

courts provided by the loan so in

00:24:49

this case the percentage I will produce

00:24:52

a lot of products or little I will

00:24:54

produce products in any case per

00:24:57

year I have to pay him the amount of money

00:25:01

for the money borrowed they do not

00:25:05

change they are independent I rented a

00:25:08

plot of land more than that manner I

00:25:11

will not produce I will

00:25:14

increase production It’s more appropriate

00:25:16

to reduce it in any case, the amount of

00:25:19

the lease will not change from this, I

00:25:22

will have to pay the land owner

00:25:25

Rome here according to the rent up to the head,

00:25:30

these are fixed costs and style

00:25:33

fixed costs will include

00:25:36

all

00:25:37

administrative and management costs

00:25:39

or expenses that the enterprise incurs as

00:25:42

long as it operates did not close and did

00:25:46

not go bankrupt, therefore, he

00:25:51

distinguished between fixed variable

00:25:54

costs and paid attention to total

00:25:57

costs, as we said earlier that total

00:26:01

costs consist of internal and external

00:26:03

costs, and we also do not have the right to

00:26:08

say that total costs

00:26:11

are the

00:26:13

sum of

00:26:15

fixed and variable costs, and so

00:26:19

total costs are with

00:26:22

total fixed and variable

00:26:25

costs, that is, total costs equal

00:26:28

fixed costs plus

00:26:32

variable costs, and

00:26:35

what I just talked about

00:26:42

needs to be

00:26:44

interpreted

00:26:46

graphically, namely, fixed and

00:26:50

variable costs

00:26:53

should be reflected on graphs, and we

00:26:57

will need this in the future when analyzing the

00:27:01

economic activities of the

00:27:03

enterprise for solving the problems of

00:27:06

maximizing profits,

00:27:08

minimizing losses or closing

00:27:11

an enterprise,

00:27:13

therefore,

00:27:14

the total constant

00:27:19

variables and total costs can be

00:27:22

represented in the following form if the volume of production is

00:27:25

plotted along the horizontal x-axis

00:27:28

along the vertical

00:27:32

production costs, which will

00:27:35

express vertically both constant

00:27:38

variables and total costs,

00:27:41

then in this case on the graph it is clear that

00:27:43

if fixed costs are 20

00:27:47

units or 20 thousand or twenty

00:27:50

million, it doesn’t matter, we just take 20

00:27:53

monetary units, then it is interpreted

00:27:57

as a straight line which is absolutely

00:28:00

independent of the volume of production, no matter

00:28:02

how much shoe polish 0 will be produced

00:28:06

or 800 products, the value of

00:28:09

fixed costs remains the value of

00:28:13

variables costs and a variable

00:28:16

sloping line indicates

00:28:19

that with an increase in production volume,

00:28:22

variable costs increase and

00:28:24

finally, total costs

00:28:27

have just been discussed with you that total

00:28:31

costs are the sum of fixed and

00:28:35

variable costs;

00:28:37

therefore, if you count along the vertical axis, then the

00:28:40

sum of fixed

00:28:43

costs is 20 units and

00:28:48

variable costs

00:28:51

21 let’s say one unit, then in this

00:28:55

case the total, that is, the

00:28:57

total fixed costs are

00:29:03

volume a bar b-bar or

00:29:08

b-ki abe segment if this time is the sum then

00:29:13

in this case the variable cost curve

00:29:17

should shift upward

00:29:21

by the amount of these fixed costs of

00:29:26

this segment a with b direct and

00:29:30

therefore which is equal to b

00:29:33

research summing up

00:29:37

costs

00:29:38

with fixed costs, I get the

00:29:42

value of total costs with a

00:29:44

production volume of 400 units

00:29:47

43

00:29:49

monetary units which consists of

00:29:53

variable costs and

00:29:56

fixed costs fixed costs

00:30:00

a.b. the variables here we have in general,

00:30:03

they actually coincide

00:30:05

with the constants, so any distance

00:30:10

between the lines and the variable and the total will be

00:30:18

equal to 20

00:30:21

units everywhere at any point vertically, so

00:30:26

we now have a graphical and

00:30:31

quantitative expression of the total costs

00:30:34

and now in the end, taking into account that that we

00:30:37

identified fixed variable costs

00:30:40

according to the criterion of the

00:30:43

reaction of costs to changes in the scale of

00:30:47

production and to internal and external

00:30:50

costs according to the criterion adopted on the

00:30:52

reliability of resources, we can write

00:30:56

that the total costs are the

00:31:00

sum of either fixed and variable

00:31:03

costs

00:31:04

or the same thing, the same costs but

00:31:08

expressed according to

00:31:09

delimited according to another criterion,

00:31:12

costs are internal and external;

00:31:15

therefore, we need to remember this

00:31:19

ratio so that in the future, in

00:31:23

general, it does

00:31:24

not seem that total costs

00:31:28

relate only to constant variables,

00:31:31

because in fact

00:31:33

we will not address internal and external costs;

00:31:36

in the future, the analysis will

00:31:38

focus on fixed and

00:31:40

variable costs

00:31:42

costs since they are associated with

00:31:46

real production processes,

00:31:49

internal and external, or rather, we need

00:31:53

economic profit, so we

00:31:56

will always remember that total costs

00:31:59

are subtracted from total income or

00:32:03

gross income

00:32:04

and now let's move on to the value of

00:32:07

average costs

00:32:11

average costs are costs

00:32:14

per unit

00:32:16

products and so therefore, in order to

00:32:20

obtain average costs, that is,

00:32:23

costs

00:32:24

average costs are the

00:32:27

costs per unit of

00:32:31

production for a given volume of production,

00:32:36

therefore, accordingly, in order to determine the

00:32:39

costs per unit of production, you need to know the

00:32:43

total costs,

00:32:44

if we are talking about total costs, then the

00:32:47

total total costs or costs

00:32:50

divided by quantity or by the volume of

00:32:53

output, variable

00:32:56

costs, also total variable

00:32:58

costs, divided by the number of products

00:33:02

per volume of output, we get the costs of

00:33:04

variables per unit of production, and in the same way, fixed

00:33:08

costs,

00:33:10

total fixed costs,

00:33:13

divided by the number of

00:33:17

products produced, we get costs per

00:33:20

unit of production, fixed costs, and

00:33:23

so we have this

00:33:26

the formulas written

00:33:30

express the average constant first

00:33:34

formula 2 average variable costs and

00:33:39

average total costs

00:33:42

are expressed by the last formula as you

00:33:45

can see and average constant average

00:33:48

variables corresponding average

00:33:50

constant variable total costs

00:33:53

and y invariably is the volume of

00:33:57

production at which we calculate the

00:34:00

value of

00:34:02

certain average costs

00:34:08

except that is necessary from the systems, but that

00:34:12

we have considered average costs,

00:34:16

we need to realize that we need this

00:34:19

in order to compare it with

00:34:23

real income and in reality,

00:34:28

income comes down to price if we sold a

00:34:32

product for 10 rubles, a

00:34:34

unit of product for 10 rubles is our

00:34:38

income and our revenue and therefore in

00:34:40

this case, in order to compare the

00:34:43

income received from a unit of product,

00:34:47

it is necessary to know the costs of it, that is,

00:34:51

per unit of this product, and therefore, in

00:34:53

this case, we need average costs

00:34:56

in order to

00:34:59

compare them with the income or with the information about

00:35:03

which we sold this product, on the

00:35:07

other hand, we must know another

00:35:11

category of costs that is associated with a

00:35:14

unit of production; these are marginal

00:35:17

costs;

00:35:19

marginal costs are costs that are

00:35:22

associated with the production of each

00:35:24

additional unit of output to the

00:35:27

existing

00:35:30

volume of output; thus, marginal

00:35:36

costs

00:35:38

are costs that are associated no longer on

00:35:43

average if we have 10 units and on

00:35:46

average how many costs and are carried out

00:35:50

either by variable fuel constantly or by total

00:35:52

costs or by marginal costs,

00:35:55

first of all, remember and they are connected

00:35:58

precisely by variable

00:36:00

costs because these are the costs for

00:36:03

each additional unit of output,

00:36:09

it can increase, these costs

00:36:12

can increase or can decrease

00:36:16

or remain stable, therefore

00:36:20

the average the value,

00:36:22

as a rule, or average costs, as a

00:36:26

rule, does not coincide with the value of

00:36:28

marginal costs, on the other hand, we

00:36:32

must remember that in order to compare

00:36:35

marginal costs, we need to compare

00:36:38

them with the marginal product, we need to

00:36:40

know the marginal product, the

00:36:43

marginal product is the product obtained

00:36:46

as a result of involving the production of an

00:36:49

additional unit of one of

00:36:52

resources with all other

00:36:56

resources unchanged and

00:36:59

so the marginal product this income

00:37:03

product is obtained as a result of the involvement of an

00:37:06

additional resource, let us assume that the

00:37:08

unit of measurement of the additional

00:37:11

resource is one worker,

00:37:15

therefore the first worker produced, let’s say

00:37:18

9 are involved and the economic turnover is 9

00:37:20

products 2 8 products 3 7 products

00:37:25

4 6 products and so on and so, each

00:37:31

additionally involved worker

00:37:34

produces his own marginal product;

00:37:37

it may be equal to each other; everyone produces

00:37:39

9, but nevertheless, each

00:37:42

additionally involved resource

00:37:45

produces the

00:37:47

corresponding product; in

00:37:50

addition, we must also know the value of the

00:37:54

marginal income;

00:37:56

marginal income is the income received as a

00:38:00

result sales of each additional

00:38:03

unit of production

00:38:06

and

00:38:08

therefore

00:38:10

for analysis, the

00:38:15

value of marginal income is most suitable for us because the

00:38:18

marginal product

00:38:20

or marginal product is the

00:38:23

marginal income of a resource. We will

00:38:26

analyze the case when we

00:38:29

measure the efficiency of the

00:38:31

resources used, that is, I hire an

00:38:35

employee and

00:38:37

compare his wages with the resource

00:38:41

with the product that he produced,

00:38:46

therefore this

00:38:49

problem will be considered in the

00:38:51

final part of the analysis, then

00:38:55

the drawings which topic will be devoted to

00:38:59

resources, and now more important for us, the

00:39:02

category marginal income

00:39:05

is the income

00:39:08

received as a result of the sale of each

00:39:11

additional unit of

00:39:13

resource, I ask for forgiveness of each

00:39:17

additional unit of production,

00:39:20

therefore in this case, the marginal income

00:39:25

if we

00:39:26

imagine that the price does not change

00:39:30

and it is sold at a constant price, that is, the

00:39:36

same price of 10 rubles for a

00:39:38

certain product has been stably restored on the market, then in this case,

00:39:41

naturally, each subsequent unit

00:39:44

will also be equal to the

00:39:47

previous marginal income, but

00:39:51

the situation may change that each

00:39:55

subsequent product sold will be

00:39:58

sold at a higher price at or

00:40:00

at a lower price and, accordingly, from

00:40:04

this point of view, the marginal income will

00:40:07

completely

00:40:10

change and

00:40:12

will not be stable; we will return to this

00:40:17

when we consider various

00:40:19

market structures; a

00:40:21

market of perfect competition; a market of

00:40:23

imperfect

00:40:25

competition; and now

00:40:28

I suggest

00:40:30

you pay attention to the

00:40:34

graphical solution to the problem of average

00:40:37

constant average variables of average

00:40:40

total and marginal costs

00:40:44

so that in the future we will use

00:40:47

these graphs to analyze the economic

00:40:51

activities of

00:40:53

the enterprise,

00:40:54

so here in front of you are the

00:40:57

curves of average constant

00:41:00

average variables alone indicated on the

00:41:03

graph we see of average total and

00:41:07

marginal costs

00:41:10

that constant average costs

00:41:18

as the volume of production increases, the

00:41:22

green line, note that

00:41:25

as the output increases,

00:41:29

it decreases less and less,

00:41:31

decreases, and ultimately

00:41:34

infinity in its own way, even if taken away,

00:41:37

the reduction turns into a small significant

00:41:41

value, why does

00:41:42

this arise because the value

00:41:45

of the total or as the value of the constant

00:41:48

total fixed costs are the same,

00:41:51

it invariably does not affect the

00:41:55

volume of output,

00:41:57

but the average constants will of course

00:42:00

change, imagine if

00:42:03

fixed costs are equal to two hundred

00:42:06

rubles, then in this case, with a volume of 4

00:42:11

output of 4 products, we get that

00:42:14

per unit of average constant products

00:42:17

there are 50 units and now

00:42:20

imagine that we are missing 20 units of

00:42:23

products, then in this case 200 and linen with

00:42:27

responsibly for 20 then we get,

00:42:32

accordingly, the

00:42:34

volume of

00:42:36

average fixed costs is equal to 10 days

00:42:40

for and so on ad infinitum

00:42:44

reductions follow the greater the volume of

00:42:48

production the smaller the value

00:42:51

constant average costs,

00:42:53

as for average variable and

00:42:56

marginal costs, who does not

00:42:59

tend to first at least decrease to a

00:43:03

certain minimum and then

00:43:06

increase, that is, there is an optimum or there are the

00:43:09

minimum values that they

00:43:12

receive

00:43:13

for a particular volume of production,

00:43:17

now we

00:43:21

will look at it

00:43:23

specifically, at least we will list it like this

00:43:26

tell the specifics or characteristics of

00:43:28

these curves, but for now, pay

00:43:31

attention to the graph that the

00:43:35

marginal cost curve

00:43:37

intersects the average variable

00:43:39

cost line, the brown line and the

00:43:44

average total cost line, the purple

00:43:47

line intersects them at the points of minimum

00:43:50

value, why does this happen

00:43:55

because marginal cost is the cost of

00:43:59

each additional ene cir

00:44:03

output

00:44:05

average cost is the average value and

00:44:09

therefore if the costs are marginal,

00:44:12

that is, the additional ones for each unit of

00:44:14

production are less than the

00:44:18

average cost,

00:44:20

therefore

00:44:22

they add a smaller amount than the

00:44:26

existing average total or

00:44:29

variable costs and therefore the curve

00:44:33

is light until the

00:44:35

marginal cost curve has reached

00:44:39

level, that is, has not crossed the

00:44:42

lines of average total and average variable

00:44:45

costs,

00:44:46

it has a

00:44:48

beneficial effect on reducing

00:44:51

costs and we see the whitening of average

00:44:54

total and average variables smoothly

00:44:57

drops and as soon as they intersect the

00:45:01

marginal cost curve,

00:45:03

we see that the

00:45:06

right wing or right side of the line

00:45:10

begins to stretch after

00:45:15

marginal costs, this means

00:45:18

that after the minimum when matching

00:45:22

. a and point b is the point of coincidence of

00:45:26

marginal costs at point a with

00:45:29

average total costs at point b, coincidence of

00:45:32

marginal costs with variable

00:45:36

average costs and

00:45:38

therefore in the future

00:45:41

look at that tower of point a and point

00:45:44

b marginal additional costs for an

00:45:47

additional unit exceed average

00:45:50

costs and the following follows

00:45:53

pursuing the volume of production,

00:45:55

average costs will increase

00:45:58

because the additional weight of the

00:46:00

added

00:46:02

marginal unit of

00:46:05

production or costs and expenses

00:46:09

accordingly increases the average

00:46:11

value and therefore our average costs

00:46:14

tend to further

00:46:18

increase, and

00:46:21

now let’s look at it, so to speak, we have

00:46:24

looked at the graph, now we

00:46:30

will make a statement of facts or character,

00:46:35

we will give a characterization cost curves

00:46:38

that we just examined, that

00:46:42

is, let’s summarize

00:46:45

the graph we examined so far

00:46:48

visually and I commented on the graph and

00:46:52

now we will reproduce on the screen the

00:46:56

corresponding characteristics and which,

00:46:59

in general, I just gave and so

00:47:03

the most important characteristics of the wings

00:47:05

of costs

00:47:06

1 marginal cost curve in any way is not

00:47:11

related to the curve of average fixed

00:47:14

costs of production

00:47:16

since they are a

00:47:19

constant value

00:47:22

2 and the marginal cost curve

00:47:26

intersects the curves of average total and

00:47:29

average variable costs

00:47:32

at the points of their lowest

00:47:36

value, the following

00:47:39

curve of average total costs

00:47:43

shifts up or down depending

00:47:46

on changes in fixed costs

00:47:51

since constant costs, you must

00:47:55

remember, are an integral part of

00:47:58

average total costs and, in general, total

00:48:02

costs, the

00:48:03

marginal cost curves of average

00:48:06

variable and average total costs

00:48:09

shift on the plane, that is, up

00:48:12

to the right or down to the left

00:48:15

on the plane if the prices

00:48:19

for resources included in the variable

00:48:22

costs change,

00:48:23

in this case

00:48:25

we are talking about that

00:48:30

if prices change for resources, the

00:48:34

value of

00:48:37

variable costs consistently changes and therefore in

00:48:39

this case average costs will also change,

00:48:42

but they change under the

00:48:46

influence of

00:48:47

just marginal costs because if the

00:48:51

price changes by 1 to well, let’s say by

00:48:54

15 to

00:48:56

16 17 20 units and prices will begin grow and in

00:49:00

this case, of course, the

00:49:02

value of both average and fixed costs

00:49:06

will

00:49:07

change, this must be remembered and the

00:49:11

last position is the marginal

00:49:15

cost curve is a mirror

00:49:18

image of the

00:49:21

productivity curve, the

00:49:25

curve is a

00:49:27

mirror image of the

00:49:29

productivity curve, the dynamics of marginal

00:49:31

costs are subject to laws, are

00:49:36

subject to

00:49:40

productivity laws, we know such laws

00:49:43

3 this is the

00:49:46

law of diminishing returns,

00:49:50

the law of increasing productivity and the

00:49:53

law of constant productivity,

00:50:00

so

00:50:02

we can say that production costs are

00:50:05

subject to the law of increasing

00:50:08

constant diminishing returns. At the

00:50:11

same time, recall the marginal

00:50:14

productivity, the marginal

00:50:16

productivity of a resource, keep in mind

00:50:19

that these are not costs, but the output of a resource

00:50:23

is measured by the marginal product

00:50:26

per each and an additional

00:50:29

unit of

00:50:30

resource, which we just

00:50:35

looked at when we

00:50:39

discussed the problem of marginal product

00:50:46

under the action of the law of increasing

00:50:49

productivity, marginal costs

00:50:54

are reduced as a result of an increase in the

00:50:56

marginal product or additional

00:50:59

unit of

00:51:01

resource, that is, if the law of

00:51:07

increasing productivity is in effect, then in

00:51:10

this case the

00:51:12

output of products increases and,

00:51:15

consequently, distribution costs for a

00:51:18

larger number of products are reduced

00:51:21

under the action of the

00:51:24

law of constant productivity,

00:51:27

marginal costs

00:51:28

stabilize and become

00:51:30

unchanged since each subsequent

00:51:34

unit of resource provides constant

00:51:38

returns, and

00:51:40

finally,

00:51:47

when considering the action of the law of

00:51:51

diminishing productivity, it must be

00:51:53

said that

00:51:54

marginal costs increase as

00:51:57

a result of decreasing returns from

00:51:59

subsequent units of resources,

00:52:05

so we we examined the

00:52:08

laws of

00:52:10

productivity and,

00:52:12

accordingly, now we will give them a

00:52:16

graphical interpretation, but through

00:52:19

action through the prism of

00:52:23

production costs and, first of all, in

00:52:26

this case we are talking about marginal

00:52:29

costs,

00:52:30

pay attention to

00:52:32

the graph and so action 3 of the law of

00:52:36

productivity, we said that

00:52:39

productivity costs have

00:52:42

marginal costs, marginal

00:52:44

productivity

00:52:45

or marginal profitability

00:52:47

are, so to speak, a

00:52:50

mirror image of each other, therefore, in this

00:52:54

case, this curve

00:52:57

abcd represents the curve of

00:53:00

marginal costs and so increasing the

00:53:04

return on resources, costs are reduced in

00:53:08

this case, on the segment from a to b we

00:53:12

see marginal costs

00:53:14

are reduced, therefore, on this

00:53:16

segment the law

00:53:19

of increasing performance is not in

00:53:21

the segment of the fighters, although we see a certain

00:53:24

deflection, but if we put it

00:53:29

aside, although we can

00:53:32

say that between the points the fighters are

00:53:35

insignificant, in general, the changes

00:53:37

can be said that the

00:53:40

law of constant productivity applies in this section, I

00:53:43

emphasize once again,

00:53:45

if we ignore this insignificant

00:53:47

deflection,

00:53:49

here it is on the segment c and d the law of

00:53:54

diminishing productivity applies

00:53:58

and follows on the segment on the ascending one,

00:54:01

pay attention again and I’m talking about the

00:54:05

ascending curve

00:54:07

or part of the marginal cost curve,

00:54:11

namely from point c to point d and further,

00:54:16

as output increases, the

00:54:20

costs for each additional

00:54:23

unit of output will increase

00:54:31

therefore we must remember that

00:54:37

production costs

00:54:40

associated with

00:54:43

fixed and variable and total

00:54:46

average costs are

00:54:48

directly related, respectively, to

00:54:53

marginal costs.

00:54:55

From this point of view, we must

00:55:01

take a particularly serious approach to the analysis of total

00:55:05

costs and variable costs in

00:55:08

relation to marginal costs, the

00:55:12

fact is that marginal costs, or

00:55:16

rather,

00:55:18

I would like to draw your attention to the fact

00:55:22

that marginal values, and in this

00:55:26

case this is virtually all modern

00:55:30

economic analysis, is based on the

00:55:33

principles of marginalism, that is, on the

00:55:36

principles of maximum sti, then it is

00:55:40

necessary to

00:55:42

take this problem seriously and

00:55:47

perfectly master such categories as

00:55:52

marginal product

00:55:55

that is, the product obtained from an

00:55:57

additional involved

00:56:00

production process resource for an additional

00:56:03

unit resource marginal income of

00:56:08

a resource one can say stigmata monetary

00:56:11

expression of the marginal product

00:56:15

marginal costs that

00:56:19

we just said are the costs of an

00:56:22

additional unit of production

00:56:25

marginal productivity

00:56:28

is the return on the resource

00:56:31

marginal income income received from

00:56:36

sales of each additional

00:56:38

unit of resource and so on, therefore the

00:56:43

category of

00:56:47

limit values is very important, but

00:56:50

here it is necessary to pay attention to the

00:56:54

following point,

00:56:58

from my point of view, in general, a

00:57:01

concept based on limit

00:57:04

values and somehow

00:57:07

explaining the principle of pricing and

00:57:11

determining the calculation of the

00:57:16

optimal volume production that

00:57:19

ensures maximum profits or

00:57:23

minimum losses, or when it is necessary

00:57:26

to close enterprises, and so on,

00:57:33

there are no problems in relation to

00:57:37

material goods

00:57:40

because, in fact, the production of an

00:57:43

additional unit of

00:57:45

good requires additional resources

00:57:49

and additional costs

00:57:51

additional costs

00:57:54

if we are talking about the fact that a

00:57:58

resource is being carried away gives, that is, we

00:58:02

spend a resource, but nevertheless

00:58:04

we get an

00:58:07

additional unit of production, and this is the

00:58:11

marginal product,

00:58:13

but in this case we must

00:58:16

compare how much this resource costs per

00:58:20

unit of resource, we additionally involve

00:58:23

them and what product is what income from this

00:58:27

marginal additional product we

00:58:30

will get

00:58:31

here a clear comparison, then the

00:58:35

costs, let’s say an additional

00:58:37

employee is 300 rubles, we pay, let’s say

00:58:40

per hour and

00:58:43

what product produces in the total

00:58:46

value or engy here are the goals of the point of view,

00:58:50

we see that certain economic

00:58:53

and positive meaning has of course these

00:58:57

limiting values, but this has

00:59:00

relationships like rule to the sphere of

00:59:02

material production,

00:59:04

but I would like to draw your attention to

00:59:07

the fact that in the

00:59:11

condition when the overwhelming part

00:59:18

or a significant part, if not the

00:59:21

overwhelming part, of the

00:59:24

product of economic activity or the

00:59:27

product of labor activity

00:59:30

is of an intangible nature,

00:59:32

that is, an ideal or spiritual product, a

00:59:35

scientific product arises, then in this

00:59:40

situation

00:59:41

Naturally, the comparison of the principle is

00:59:44

marginal and the use of the principle of

00:59:46

maximum sti is very doubtful.

00:59:51

I spoke about this in relation to marginal

00:59:54

utility,

00:59:55

here you go, we said when we

00:59:58

considered marginal utility

01:00:00

that in this case this is the utility of each

01:00:03

additional unit,

01:00:05

good

01:00:08

but also

01:00:10

stylish in relation to material goods, we

01:00:14

acquire each additional unit of

01:00:17

product,

01:00:19

we increase the overall utility of a given

01:00:22

good,

01:00:23

but the value of each subsequent unit

01:00:26

falls and in the end, according to

01:00:29

Gaston’s law, as we already know,

01:00:32

it does not reduce to zero on the savannah and then

01:00:36

10 or 15 units, but in general, we don’t

01:00:39

need, we need other goods,

01:00:41

so if we need this principle extremely

01:00:45

sti also works in the theory of utility

01:00:48

in this case and then let’s

01:00:50

consider turning to spiritual benefits, so

01:00:55

if the idea of the product itself, that is, a patent

01:01:02

license for the production of this

01:01:04

product, that is, technical

01:01:06

documentation

01:01:08

exists, if I purchase it, then do

01:01:14

I need the

01:01:18

same adequate equivalent

01:01:21

information then there is technical

01:01:23

documentation that I just

01:01:26

received

01:01:28

or information you need one more

01:01:31

information so I can repeat once again

01:01:34

what the value of the following information will be

01:01:36

if you already have a record

01:01:39

it is

01:01:40

clear that the subsequent value and today the

01:01:44

marginal usefulness of the next

01:01:47

information product is zero and the

01:01:51

reality principle does not work here and

01:01:55

therefore the marginal cost

01:01:58

asks him 1 is it necessary to make

01:02:02

expenses and therefore

01:02:05

incur costs for the

01:02:08

next one for the same technical

01:02:11

documentation they require a pipe all the

01:02:14

resources for this if it in itself is

01:02:17

not required by anyone there is no

01:02:19

demand already a person to receive this

01:02:22

documentation of value and immediately

01:02:25

turns into me, therefore,

01:02:28

the following additional trace resources are not needed; the

01:02:32

problem of marginal product disappears; the

01:02:35

problem of marginal income disappears;

01:02:39

marginal costs disappear; the problem of

01:02:42

marginal costs and the

01:02:45

comparison of the corresponding

01:02:47

marginal income and marginal costs;

01:02:50

after all, if I spent

01:02:53

100 rubles

01:02:57

of a material product on an additional unit of material product,

01:03:00

but the implementation of this additional

01:03:02

units received 150 there is not marginal

01:03:06

revenue, respectively, it will be equal to the

01:03:09

marginal unit of difference it will be 50

01:03:12

units discrepancy marginal revenue

01:03:15

exceeds marginal costs I will

01:03:18

produce

01:03:20

until marginal costs or

01:03:25

marginal revenue is equal to or

01:03:28

marginal costs rise to 150

01:03:31

rubles or marginal revenue

01:03:33

will not drop to 100 units and is restrained,

01:03:37

but in relation to a spiritual product in

01:03:41

relation to an intellectual

01:03:43

information product,

01:03:46

these principles do not apply and we, in

01:03:49

general, find ourselves in a situation

01:03:52

where

01:03:54

material production in general

01:03:57

must work or adhere to one

01:04:00

theory of the same principles, principles of the principles of

01:04:03

the utmost sti about what In the future, we will

01:04:10

talk in detail and analyze the economic

01:04:13

activities of the enterprise,

01:04:14

but I draw your attention to the fact that this

01:04:17

analysis is acceptable only for material

01:04:21

production,

01:04:22

as for intangible

01:04:25

production,

01:04:26

and this is education, science, culture, and so on and so

01:04:29

forth, this is computer science, a

01:04:33

product of information, this and various

01:04:36

types of research, well all information about

01:04:39

the market or about the

01:04:42

development trends of this or that is

01:04:45

also a product, it also costs, but we can’t we

01:04:49

need to realize this and understand that

01:04:54

economic theory is now facing a

01:04:57

colossal problem,

01:05:02

so explain and on what principles we

01:05:06

should explain the value value price of an

01:05:12

intellectual spiritual product this a

01:05:16

colossal problem that, more than

01:05:18

ever, cannot be solved on the principles

01:05:21

of marginalism on the principles of limit

01:05:24

values,

01:05:26

I will make this digression so

01:05:29

that despite the fact that we will further generally

01:05:32

consider and

01:05:36

analyze the economic activity of an

01:05:39

enterprise,

01:05:40

evaluate the effectiveness of its work on

01:05:43

the basis of limit values, you must

01:05:46

to realize that we are talking mainly not

01:05:51

mainly but exclusively about the

01:05:54

sphere of material production, not

01:05:57

these principles are

01:05:59

good or bad, but in general it allows us to

01:06:03

understand the

01:06:04

economic content, the

01:06:06

economic meaning of the

01:06:08

behavior of a particular economic

01:06:10

entity,

01:06:12

as for the spiritual production of

01:06:16

non-material production,

01:06:18

and this part becomes prevalent in

01:06:21

all society because the

01:06:24

determining object of investment and

01:06:27

use of resources is the

01:06:29

formation and development of human

01:06:32

capital and this sphere of intangible

01:06:35

production and

01:06:39

therefore

01:06:42

I would like to warn you

01:06:45

regarding at least the extension of

01:06:48

these principles to that sphere and this sphere I will

01:06:53

once again emphasize, gaining, so to speak,

01:06:56

colossal, so to speak turnover of its

01:06:58

development and becomes prevalent in

01:07:03

developed countries in the United States of

01:07:04

America, let's say 30, it is already

01:07:07

this sphere that

01:07:09

provides an increase in the gross

01:07:13

domestic product of the national product to

01:07:15

a greater extent than the sphere of material

01:07:18

production,

01:07:19

but we cannot turn a blind

01:07:22

eye, so to speak,

01:07:24

I ignore this, by the way, the practice is real,

01:07:27

so to speak, and a theory that in no way

01:07:30

corresponds to the

01:07:31

principles of functioning

01:07:33

of modern, so to speak, spiritual, in the

01:07:35

broad sense of the word, of this production

01:07:42

after this and small remarks that I

01:07:46

would like to specifically draw your

01:07:48

attention to the problems of modern

01:07:51

economic theory and once again emphasize

01:07:54

only theories about

01:07:58

economic practice

01:08:00

because we cannot explain the

01:08:03

principle of formation prices based and

01:08:07

based solely on the

01:08:10

principles of marginalism, this is a

01:08:13

colossal problem of some kind, but unfortunately we have

01:08:17

no choice and you at least impose it as this

01:08:20

truth of the last instance,

01:08:24

it is necessary to be guided solely,

01:08:26

so to speak, by the

01:08:29

criteria of the maximum values of

01:08:32

their comparison and so on, on the basis of

01:08:34

this, make

01:08:37

another decision and At the same time, I’ll emphasize once again

01:08:40

in relation to material production,

01:08:42

obviously this is quite normal and

01:08:44

acceptable, but the other part remains

01:08:48

virtually undisclosed, and now, so

01:08:51

to speak, the correspondence has been considered, so to speak, at least with

01:08:55

that curve, I’m just

01:09:00

returning you now, so to speak, to the

01:09:05

marginal cost curve

01:09:08

that we have already considered discussed,

01:09:11

just remember and

01:09:13

descending ones are suitable because here

01:09:17

the return is governed by the law of increasing

01:09:20

productivity Abe and on the segment cd

01:09:23

the law of diminishing productivity is valid

01:09:28

therefore in this case, even now

01:09:33

we will move on to the analysis of the

01:09:38

dependence of production volume on

01:09:41

the increase in resources, then the dependence of the

01:09:44

dynamics and marginal and average

01:09:46

productivity and relationships and

01:09:49

we will make certain generalizations and how the

01:09:54

legal

01:09:55

average and marginal

01:09:57

productivity affect the increase in

01:10:00

production and the volume of output

01:10:03

Irina scale of production

01:10:07

so we will look at

01:10:12

these dependencies in graphical

01:10:18

drawings

01:10:20

so the first one we see pay attention

01:10:25

to the top graph and so the green line

01:10:29

is the average productivity let me

01:10:32

remind you that

01:10:35

productivity

01:10:37

average productivity

01:10:40

is the volume of output per unit of

01:10:44

time to the

01:10:46

average average we emphasize

01:10:52

each unit of resource that is, on average

01:10:58

this line is average productivity

01:11:01

and the green one is first ascending, that

01:11:05

is, in productivity growth it goes

01:11:07

up and then at the point of intersection of its

01:11:10

marginal productivity it begins to

01:11:15

descend to the bottom that is, it has a

01:11:18

descending character and another

01:11:21

marginal productivity

01:11:23

marginal productivity has the

01:11:26

same approximately graph that is, and the

01:11:28

relative steeper graph is only

01:11:31

the only such pain that is clearly expressed

01:11:33

then all the dynamics of the

01:11:35

corresponding productivity of

01:11:38

each additional unit of resource

01:11:42

now pay attention to the

01:11:46

graph until the marginal

01:11:49

productivity then there is a marginal

01:11:53

product from each additional unit of

01:11:56

resource as long as it increases, and

01:12:01

even when the peak of the

01:12:05

purple line is the peak of the

01:12:10

situation, the

01:12:13

marginal productivity will increase,

01:12:16

but despite the fact that further descending

01:12:18

went and those from the peak went down, the

01:12:21

marginal productivity

01:12:23

begins to fall, that is, the law of diminishing

01:12:26

returns of actions but look,

01:12:30

despite the fact that the

01:12:32

marginal produced vaio marginal

01:12:34

productivity will reach the peak

01:12:37

goes down, nevertheless, until the moment of

01:12:42

intersection, the average

01:12:44

productivity curve continues to

01:12:46

rise upward why because

01:12:52

each additional unit of

01:12:56

resource,

01:12:58

despite the fact that it brings less and

01:13:01

less, and the product is

01:13:04

nevertheless greater the

01:13:07

average value of the product produced by

01:13:11

each unit of resource on average, which is

01:13:15

reflected by average productivity, and

01:13:18

as soon as they are equal, they are equal;

01:13:22

this is the point of intersection of the

01:13:24

curves of marginal productivity and

01:13:27

average productivity,

01:13:28

then in this case we see that the

01:13:32

marginal cost curve has gone down and

01:13:36

after it it

01:13:38

has acquired a downward character and

01:13:41

the average productivity

01:13:43

since

01:13:45

after the intersection point each

01:13:49

additional absorbed resource

01:13:52

brings an ever

01:13:55

smaller marginal product

01:13:58

or marginal income of the resource

01:14:02

compared to the average value, I

01:14:06

ask for the maximum value of the average

01:14:09

value of the product, we get an average per

01:14:13

unit of resource and

01:14:16

with all this we see that the

01:14:19

average productivity curve

01:14:23

subsequently goes downward

01:14:26

but nevertheless, up to the point of intersection of the

01:14:29

abscissa line, that is, the horizontal

01:14:31

line, the

01:14:32

marginal productivity, even

01:14:35

though it continues to fall,

01:14:38

it has positive values,

01:14:42

look at

01:14:45

20-21 there above then 15 then weigh

01:14:49

then 5 then 3 1 and 0 finally and at

01:14:54

this point as soon as the line of marginal

01:14:58

productivity crosses the line

01:15:02

abc from otherwise it becomes marginal productivity already acquires

01:15:09

negative values and therefore the

01:15:12

marginal product does not increase as a

01:15:15

result of an increase in the resource, but

01:15:18

is reduced, this line which is

01:15:23

part of the section of the marginal line of

01:15:27

marginal productivity

01:15:29

located below the abscissa line riga

01:15:34

flax umbrella or do not indicate that it

01:15:36

brings

01:15:38

negative marginal products and

01:15:42

therefore now I draw your

01:15:45

attention to the

01:15:48

combined graph below the

01:15:53

considered figure, the volume of

01:15:57

output vertically and the volume of resources

01:16:00

horizontally coincide as in the first case,

01:16:03

but now we have a graph of an

01:16:07

increase in the volume of output

01:16:11

in accordance with the

01:16:13

increase in existing resource,

01:16:17

in addition, if we consider, then we are

01:16:20

just showing these 2 hectares and

01:16:23

fico combined, we must pay

01:16:27

attention to the

01:16:30

influence that

01:16:33

marginal productivity has on the

01:16:35

amount of output, and

01:16:40

so on until the

01:16:42

marginal productivity

01:16:45

has

01:16:46

pay attention to the line of marginal

01:16:49

productivity has positive

01:16:51

values,

01:16:52

it doesn’t matter that

01:16:54

from the peak of marginal productivity the

01:16:58

law of diminishing productivity began to operate,

01:17:01

but nevertheless,

01:17:03

marginal productivity has a

01:17:06

positive value of the marginal

01:17:08

product, that is, each additional

01:17:12

unit of the

01:17:14

resource carried away gives an increase in the

01:17:18

product up to the point of intersection of the

01:17:23

abscess line, that is, to a negative

01:17:26

value of

01:17:28

marginal productivity we see

01:17:30

in the lower figure that the marginal

01:17:35

total volume of output

01:17:38

continues to grow, grow, and grow until the

01:17:43

marginal productivity is

01:17:46

connected by a dotted line,

01:17:49

because we get a larger volume of production

01:17:53

when resources are involved in three and a half

01:17:56

units and

01:17:59

in the future as a result of negative

01:18:03

values of the marginal product

01:18:05

each additional additionally

01:18:08

entrained unit of resource, the

01:18:11

total volume of production begins

01:18:15

to paint, as evidenced by the graph of the

01:18:19

volume of output, which is

01:18:23

presented here with a purple

01:18:26

line or

01:18:29

some kind of crimson line, which

01:18:32

indicates that

01:18:34

further use of resources does

01:18:38

not lead to an increase in the volume of output;

01:18:45

therefore, we reduce it must remember that it is

01:18:51

not always, but in general it is never

01:18:57

possible to continuously increase resources

01:19:01

to expect an endless increase in

01:19:04

output since in this case

01:19:10

we would ignore the

01:19:14

law of diminishing

01:19:16

returns, and even more so the law of

01:19:19

diminishing

01:19:22

returns, according to which we will

01:19:25

determine for certain

01:19:27

circumstances, it acquires

01:19:30

negative values, that is, the

01:19:33

marginal product

01:19:34

acquires a negative value, and

01:19:37

therefore this is a deduction from the total

01:19:40

output volume,

01:19:43

so if we want to find

01:19:48

the maximum volume of production that

01:19:51

can be

01:19:53

achieved by

01:19:55

increasing a given resource, we must

01:19:59

know exactly those positive

01:20:03

values or the moment

01:20:07

at which there is a tendency

01:20:12

to obtain a negative marginal

01:20:15

product, that is, negative

01:20:20

marginal productivity, and

01:20:23

now, in general, let us repeat that in

01:20:26

general, the graphic explained the

01:20:30

position on the relationship between the average and

01:20:33

marginal

01:20:34

productivity of the product, and

01:20:38

so the first thing is that the graphs of average and

01:20:41

marginal

01:20:42

productivity have a relatively

01:20:45

identical character, that is, ascending and

01:20:49

then the character is washed away, therefore in

01:20:52

this case the law

01:20:55

of increasing and the law of diminishing

01:20:58

productivity operates,

01:21:01

I would like to comment on this

01:21:05

point, keep in mind that relatively, so

01:21:08

to speak, the average marginal

01:21:10

producer has a relatively

01:21:12

identical character, yes this is

01:21:16

undoubtedly so, but the dynamics are completely

01:21:21

different from each other,

01:21:24

this is impossible

01:21:27

forget and pay attention to the

01:21:30

marginal value,

01:21:32

they are on the average value and

01:21:36

therefore the

01:21:39

values of the marginal productivity are

01:21:43

much greater in comparison with the

01:21:45

value of the average productivity, so to speak, the

01:21:47

next one throughout the entire

01:21:50

section while the marginal

01:21:51

productivity exceeds the value of the

01:21:54

average productivity, the latter is

01:21:56

steadily

01:21:58

increasing,

01:22:00

we saw on the graph the

01:22:02

ascending segment of the

01:22:11

average

01:22:14

average productivity curve

01:22:18

as follows the point of intersection of the

01:22:21

marginal productivity curve with the

01:22:23

average productivity curve and the latter

01:22:26

has a maximum value,

01:22:30

this is what I was talking about, the intersection of the

01:22:34

marginal productivity line and average

01:22:37

productivity to the next position throughout the

01:22:39

entire segment while marginal

01:22:41

productivity is below the maximum

01:22:44

value of average productivity,

01:22:46

the latter tends to

01:22:50

decrease and

01:22:56

finally we have more

01:22:59

last position

01:23:02

related to the graph that was

01:23:05

depicted or which reflected, I'm sorry,

01:23:08

the dynamics of the volume of production

01:23:11

this volume of output increases

01:23:14

until marginal productivity

01:23:16

has positive values

01:23:20

negative values marginal

01:23:23

productivity has below the point the limit is below the line of

01:23:29

intersection

01:23:33

circulation is below the

01:23:36

point at which the

01:23:39

line of marginal productivity

01:23:41

intersects the line abscissa and,

01:23:44

accordingly, so to speak,

01:23:46

it reduces the marginal product, which

01:23:50

leads to a reduction in

01:23:51

products, respectively, and now let’s

01:23:54

consider if when we were looking at

01:23:57

analyzing the marginal utility,

01:24:00

we looked at the surplus because the profit of

01:24:04

the consumer, since we are now

01:24:06

considering

01:24:08

the activities of the enterprise, then

01:24:11

accordingly we must, that is,

01:24:13

the commodity producer, the producer, not the

01:24:16

buyer, so we will consider the

01:24:20

surplus that a

01:24:22

producer receives when selling a

01:24:27

particular product, and so the

01:24:30

producer’s surplus consists of the

01:24:32

difference between the price and the

01:24:35

marginal costs, the

01:24:38

increase in output stops

01:24:41

at the unit for which the marginal

01:24:44

costs will be equal or, as we have

01:24:48

written, will be equal to the price, and

01:24:53

so on We are talking about this case, I

01:24:57

would like to draw your attention, we will now

01:24:59

look at this graphically in the figure, that

01:25:04

is, a graphical representation of

01:25:06

the data, the ratio of price and marginal

01:25:12

costs and, accordingly,

01:25:16

producer surplus, but I would like to

01:25:18

draw your attention to the fact that to

01:25:20

simplify the analysis we

01:25:22

take a perfectly competitive market, we will talk

01:25:26

about this later at the next lecture he would

01:25:28

say I was just talking in a market of pure

01:25:31

or perfect competition,

01:25:34

products are sold at a constant price,

01:25:37

that is, competitors set a price

01:25:42

that cannot be influenced by any

01:25:45

producer, no matter how they increase or

01:25:49

reduce their production volumes,

01:25:51

therefore the lines from the price or the demand line

01:25:55

will be we have a horizontal

01:25:58

character and now let’s turn to the graph and

01:26:02

so we have a stable price, let’s assume a

01:26:07

market of perfect competition, it is

01:26:09

expressed by the demand line, the demand curve with

01:26:13

scene brackets is also the demand price, that is,

01:26:17

the price at which the product is sold and

01:26:22

we have a line or marginal

01:26:28

cost curve, the purple line

01:26:32

which shows that as we

01:26:37

increase production volume, the

01:26:41

costs of manufactured products increase

01:26:46

stylishly from point 0, then the volume mbc to the

01:26:53

volume of a cube from the

01:26:55

enterprise produces products

01:26:58

produces products

01:27:00

that correspond. Let's see it

01:27:04

crosses. cross and b the point of

01:27:07

intersection of the lines of marginal costs

01:27:11

and the income line or the price at which a

01:27:15

given product is sold therefore

01:27:17

at point b

01:27:19

which corresponds to the volume of production

01:27:22

kbc

01:27:25

marginal costs are equal to the

01:27:28

price of the product or income or average

01:27:32

income or marginal income because the

01:27:35

average marginal income here

01:27:37

coincides and

01:27:39

therefore, in this case, the

01:27:42

green triangle in b is

01:27:48

the surplus or profit of the

01:27:51

commodity producer as the difference between the

01:27:54

price and the marginal costs

01:27:58

associated with the production of a given volume of

01:28:03

production,

01:28:06

so we can say that the

01:28:11

marginal of and comparison of the marginal

01:28:14

costs and the price of the goods of the post allows

01:28:18

us to determine the volume of production

01:28:21

at to the volume of production that

01:28:25

can be considered optimal since

01:28:28

look at the graph, if further we would

01:28:30

continue to increase the volume of

01:28:33

production, that is, we would go beyond the volume of

01:28:37

cubes c to the right along the line q, let’s say

01:28:41

additional cubes c dash, then in this

01:28:44

case,

01:28:47

with a given volume of production, look to the right

01:28:51

we would get that the marginal

01:28:54

costs would be greater after

01:28:58

point b, look, the

01:29:01

marginal costs would exceed the

01:29:03

values and prices of the product, the price is the income,

01:29:06

would exceed the marginal income and the average

01:29:09

income of the enterprise, therefore, in this

01:29:12

case, each additional unit of

01:29:16

output would

01:29:18

bring us no profit, no surplus,

01:29:21

no profit to the enterprise enterprise and

01:29:25

loss since the marginal costs of the

01:29:28

costs of additional products

01:29:33

would exceed the

01:29:34

corresponding value of the price of the product,

01:29:43

so

01:29:46

we can say that the surplus is received by the aural

01:29:50

producer in the event or

01:29:54

until the marginal costs do not

01:29:57

exceed the price of the product or the average

01:30:01

value, or better yet, the value

01:30:04

marginal income,

01:30:06

I will repeat again because

01:30:08

here the average income and the marginal income

01:30:12

coincide and the expressed demand line with

01:30:17

brackets c, which was reflected in the graph, and the

01:30:21

last conclusion that needs to be

01:30:24

said is that the

01:30:29

marginal costs, excuse me, the line of

01:30:32

total costs in the long run, here

01:30:35

we have black barely noticeable lines are the

01:30:42

costs of total costs in the

01:30:45

short term, here they are, there are a lot of them, and

01:30:49

in order to imagine the costs of

01:30:52

production in the long term,

01:30:54

you need to connect this

01:30:58

short-term costs in the short

01:31:00

term with a common line and we will get the total

01:31:05

value

01:31:06

or graph of the

01:31:09

total costs of production

01:31:12

in the long term, and

01:31:15

so thank you for your attention

01:31:21

Goodbye

Description:

1. Понятие "издержки" и их классификация по критерию принадлежности. 2. Виды прибыли и их место в экономическом анализе. 3. Классификация издержек в краткосрочном периоде. 4. Средние и предельные издержки. 5. Издержки производства и производительность. Лектор - Виктор Иохин. Образование для всех. © Телекомпания СГУ ТВ, 2003. Другие лекции смотрите на https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLho0jPYl5RAFCuxlKXfG_EwSyjUvU6ugi

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